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yPTAlN  .RALPH    ,M.  PARKER 


An  Officer  s  Notes 

(Third  Edition) 

by 

Captain  R.  M.  Parker 
U.  S.  Cavalry 


Compiled  by 

Lieut.  C  C.  Griffith,  C.  A.  C. 


Copyright  1917,  and  Published  by 

George  U.  Harvey 
109  Lafayette  Street,  New  York 

Printed  by  THE  HARVEY  PRESS 
109  I^afayette  St.,  N.  Y.  City 


Price  Two  Dollars 


Dedicated  to  the 

Prophet  of  Preparedness 

Major-General  Leonard  Wood 
United  States  Army 


A' 

PREFACE. 

The  need  has  long  been  felt  for  a  small  pocket  manual  col- 
lecting in  one  volume  the  essential  parts  of  military  informa- 
tion required  by  a  young  officer  before  he  can  properly  per- 
form his  duties.  The  basic  subjects  have  been  outlined  by 
the  War  Department  in  the  course  prescribed  for  a  commis- 
sion in  the  Officers  Reserve  Corps.  Endeavor  has  been  made 
to  condense  and  compile  the  military  information  covering 
all  these  subjects  in  the  simplest,  briefest,  and  clearest  manner 
possible. 

Captain  Parker's  experience  has  particularly  fitted  him  for 
a  work  of  this  kind.  For  the  past  twenty  years  he  has  been 
constantly  with  troops,  has  seen  active  service,  and  has  gained 
much  valuable  information  and  experience.  During  the  sum- 
mer of  1916  he  was  an  instructor  at  the  Military  Training 
Camps,  and  during  the  winter  has  been  in  charge  of  a  cor- 
respondence course  for  officers  along  the  lines  prescribed  by 
the  War  Department.  Since  the  creation  of  the  Officers  Re- 
serve Corps  he  has  been  conducting  a  series  of  lectures  on 
these  same  subjects. 

"An  Officers  Notes"  is  a  compilement  of  the  lectures  given 
by  Captain  Parker  on 

Army  Regulations    (Company  administration), 

Military  Laws, 

Small-Arms  Firing, 

Field  Service  Regulations, 

Military  Topography, 

Drill  Regulations   (Infantry  and  Cavalry), 

Hippology. 

These  lectures  are  compiled  from  official  publications, 
emphasizing  the  important  points,  and  expressing  the  ideas 
in  simple  phraseology.  The  chapters  on  Drill  Regulations 
and  Hippology  have  been  drawn  largely  from  practical  ex- 
perience, and  contain  helpful  suggestions  which  Captain 
Parker  had  acquired  during  his  long  experience  in  the  Army. 
To  these  notes  have  been  added  some  plates  and  tables  of 
military  infotitnation  which  a  young  officer  will  find  useful  to 
him  in  active  service. 

C  C.  GRIFFITH, 
359184  1st  Lieut.,  C.  A.  C. 


HEADQUARTERS  EASTERN  DEPARTMENT, 
GOVERNORS  ISLAND,  N.  Y.  LW-p 

March  23,    1917. 
My  dear  Captain  Parker: 

I  wish  to  express  to   you  and  to 
Lieut.   C.   C.   Griffith  my  appreciation  of 
the  very  excellent  work  which  you  have  done 
in  "An  Officer's  Notes".       This  Uttle  book 
contains  in  limited   space  and  well    arranged 
a  vast  amount  of  most  useful    information. 
It  will   be  of     great  value  not  only  to 
those  who  are   attending  the  military  train- 
ing camps  but  especially  to  those  who  are 
preparing  to  take  the  examination  for  the 
Officers  Reserve  Corps.        It  is     extremely 
compact,   useful   and  a.  very  valuable   addition 
to  the  list  of  booto£/iow  so  much  in  demand. 


Major  General,   U.S.A. 


Captain  Ralph  M.     Parker, 
Governors  Island*   N.  Y. 


CHAPTER  I. 

COURTS  MARTIAL 

MILITARY  LAW 

1.  Source — The    Constitution   of  the   United  States. 

2.  Kinds — (a)     Military  Government,  which  is  military 
power  exercised  by  a  belligerent  in  occupied  territory  of  the 
enemy.      (Part  of  International  Law.) 

(b)  Martial  Law  at  Home,  which  is  military  power  ex- 
ercised in  time  of  war,  insurrection,  or  rebellion  over  persons 
and  things  not  ordinarily  subjected  to  it. 

(c)  Martial  Law  as  applied  to  the  Army;  which  is,  mili- 
tary power   extending  in   time   of  war   over  persons    in   the 
military  service,  as  to  obligations  arising  out  of  such  emer- 
gency and  not  falling  within  the  domain  of  military  law,  not 
otherwise  regulated  by  law. 

Note.  The  last  two  divisions  (b)  and  (c)  are  applica- 
tions of  the  doctrine  of  necessity  to  a  condition  of  war,  and 
spring  from  the  right  of  national  self-preservation. 

(d)  Military  law.    This  is  the  legal  system  that  regu- 
lates   the    government    of    the    .military    establishment.      Its 
sources  are  written  military  law  in  the  form  of  the  Articles 
of    War;    the   other   statutory   enactments   pertaining   to   the 
military  service ;   the  Army  regulations ;   general  and  special 
orders    and    decisions   promulgated   by  the   War   Department 
and  by  law  of  military  commanders.     The  unwritten  military 
law  is  the  "custom  -of  war,"  consisting  of  customs  of  service 
in  time  of  peace  and  war. 

3.  Military   Tribunals — (a)     Military   commissions    and 
provost  courts,  for  the  trial  of  offenders  against  the  laws  of 
war  and  under  martial  law. 

(b)  Courts-martial — general,     special    and    summary — 
for  the  trial  of  offenders  against  military  law. 

(c)  Courts    of   inquiry,   for   the    examination    of   trans- 
actions of,  or  accusations  or  imputations  against,  officers  or 
soldiers. 


2  Parrvonc  Uu'»ject  to  Military  Law 

PERSON?  SUBJECT  TO  MILITARY  LAW 

(a)  All  officers  and  soldiers  belonging  to  the  regular  army 
of  the  United  States,  all  volunteers  from  the  dates  of  their 
muster  or  acceptance  -into  the  military  service  of  the  United 
States,    and    all    other    persons    lawfully    called,    drafted,    or 
ordered  into  or  to  duty,  or  for  training  in  the  said  service 
from  the  dates  they  are  required  by  the  terms   of  the  call, 
draft,  or  order  to  obey  the  same.     That  includes  the  Regular 
Army,    entire;    Volunteers   when    mustered    into    the   United 
States  Service;  National  Guard,  from  the  date  of  the  order 
and  the  draft  into  the  federal  service;  members  of  the  Of- 
ficers' Reserve  Gorps  when  ordered  for  duty  with  the  army 
of  the  proper  authority;   Enlisted   Reserve  Corps  when   or- 
dered into  active  service. 

(b)  Cadets  of  the  United  States  Military  Academy. 

(c)  Officers  and  soldiers  of  the  Marine  Corps  when   de- 
tached for  service  with  the  Army. 

(d)  Officers  and  enlisted  men  of  the  Medical  Department 
of  the  Navy,   when  on  duty  with  marines  which  have  been 
detached  for  duty  with  the  Army. 

(e)  All  retainers  to  the  camp  and  all  persons  accompany- 
ing or  serving  with  the  armies  of  the  United  States  without 
the  territorial  jurisdiction  of  the  United  States,  and  in  time 
of  war  all  such  retainers  and  persons  accompanying  or  serv- 
ing with  the  armies  in  the  field,  both  within  and  without  the 
territorial  jurisdiction  of  the  United   States. 

(f)  All  persons  under  sentence  of  a  courts-martial. 

(g)  Army  field   and    quartermaster   field   clerks. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  COURTS-MARTIAL 

(a)  General  courts-martial. 

(b)  Special  courts-martial. 

(c)  Summary  courts-martial. 

COMPOSITION 

Officers  in  the  military  service  of  the  United  States,  and 
in  the  Marine  Corps  when  detached  for  duty  with  the  army. 

Exceptions — No  officers  shall  be  eligible  to  sit  as  a 
member  of  a  general  or  special  court  when  he  is  the  accuser 
or  a  witness  for  the  prosecution ;  when  there  is  only  one 


Authorities   for   Courts-Martial  3 

officer  present  with  a  command,  however,  he  shall  be  the 
summary  court-martial  of  that  command  and  shall  try  cases 
brought  before  him.  Chaplains,  veterinarians,  dental  sur- 
geons and  2nd  Lieutenants,  Quartermaster  Corps,  are  not  in 
practice,  detailed  as  (members  of  courts-martial. 

Number  of  Members — (a)  General  courts-martial — 
Any  number  of  officers  from  5  to  13,  and  shall  not  consist 
of  less  than  13  officers  when  that  number  can  be  convened 
without  manifest  injury  to  the  service.  The  decision  of  the 
officer  appointing  the  court  is  final  as  to  the  number 
which  can  be  convened  without  manifest  injury  to 
the  service.  If  a  court  is  reduced  to  less  than  5  members  it 
will  direct  the  Judge  Advocate  to  report  the  facts  \o  the 
convening  authority  and  await  his  orders.  Such  report  will 
always  be  made  through  the  commanding  officer  of  the  post, 
command,  or  station  where  the  court  is  sitting.  The  com- 
manding officer  in  forwarding  a  report  will  submit  the  names 
of  the  officers  in  his  command  who  are  available  for  detail 
to  the  court. 

(b)  ^Special  courts-martial — Any  number  of  officers  from 
3  to  5  inclusive. 

(c)  Summary  courts-martial,   shall  consist  of  one  officer. 
The  word  "officer"  means  commissioned  officer. 

An  officer  suspended  from  rank  is  not  eligible  for  detail 
upon  a  court.  A  retired  officer,  performing  active  duty  in 
time  of  war,  is  eligible  for  courts-martial  duty.  At  other 
times  he  is  not  eligible  for  such  duty,  except  when  placed  in 
command  of  a  post,  or  when  assigned  to  recruiting  duty, 
when  he  may  act  as  summary  court-martial. 

Volunteer  officers  and  officers  of  the  Reserve  Corps  or- 
dered into  active  service  are  eligible. 

Note.  No  distinction  exists  between  Regulars  and  other 
forces  as  to  eligibility  for  courts-martial  duty. 

Unless  unavoidable,  no  officer  shall  be  tried  by  officers  in- 
ferior to  him  in  rank.  The  convening  authority  decides  as 
:o  whether  or  not  it  is  avoidable. 


AUTHORITIES  FOR  APPOINTING  GENERAL 
COURTS-MARTIAL 

(a)  The  President  of  the  United  States. 

(b)  The   Commanding  Officer  of  a  territorial  division. 

(c)  The  Commanding  Officer  of  a  territorial  department. 


4  Special  Courts-Martial 

(d)  The   Superintendent   of   the    Military   Academy, 

(e)  The   Commanding  Officer  of  an   Army. 

(f)  The   Commanding   Officer  of  an   Army  Corps. 

(g)  The  Commanding  Officer  of  a    (tactical)    division. 
(h)  The  Commanding  Officer  of  a  separate  brigade. 

(i)  The  Commanding  Officer  of  any  District,  or  of  any 
force  or  body  of  troops,  when  empowered  by  the  President 
to  do  so. 

Exceptions  to  the  Above — That  when  any  of  the  fore- 
going Commanders  is  the  accuser  or  the  prosecutor,  the  court 
shall  be  appointed  by  superior  competent  authority.  The 
Superintendent  of  the  Military  Academy  cannot  convene  a 
court  for  the  trial  of  an  officer. 

SPECIAL    COURTS-MARTIAL 

Authorities  Competent  to  Appoint — (a)  The  Com- 
manding Officer  of  a  District 

(b)  The  Commanding  Officer  of  a  Garrison. 

(c)  The   Commanding  Officer  of  a  Fort. 

(d)  The  Commanding  Officer  of  a  Camp. 

(e)  The  Commanding  Officer  of  any  place  where  troops 
are   on   duty. 

(f)  The  Commanding  Officer  of   a   Brigade. 

(g)  The  Commanding  Officer  of  a  Regiment. 

(h)     The  Commanding  Officer  of  a  Detached  Battalion. 

(i)  The  Commanding  Officer  of  any  other  detached 
command. 

When  any  of  the  foregoing  Commanders  is  the  accuser  or 
the  prosecutor,  the  court  shall  be  appointed  by  a  superior 
authority.  The  above  mentioned  authorities  may  appoint 
special  courts-imartial  for  any  portion  of  their  commands. 

Rank  of  Appointing  Authority — Authority  to  appoint 
courts-martial  is  entirely  independent  of  any  particular  rank. 

Commanding  Officer  as  a  Member — When  but  two  of- 
ficers, in  addition  to  the  Commanding  Officer,  are  available,  he 
will  not  detail  himself  as  a  member.  In  such  a  case  if  superior 
authority  desires  to  appoint  a  special  court-martial  for  such 
command,  the  Commanding  Officer  may  be  detailed  as  a 
member  of  the  court. 


Summary   Courts-Martial  5 

SUMMARY  COURTS-MARTIAL 

Authorities  Competent  to  Appoint — (a) — The  Com- 
manding Officer  of  a  Garrison. 

(b)  The  Commanding  Officer  of  a  Fort. 

(c)  The  Commanding  Officer  of  a  Camp. 

(d)  The  Commanding  Officer  of  any  other  place  where 
troops  are  on  duty. 

(e)  The   Commanding  Officer  of  a  Regiment. 

(f)  The   Commanding  Officer  of  a  Detached   Battalion. 

(g)  The  Commanding  Officer  of  a  Detached  Company. 
(h)     The   Commanding  Officer   of  any  other  detachment. 
Superior  authority  may  appoint  a  summary  court  in  any  case 

where  deemed  advisable.  When  more  than  one  officer  is 
present  the  Commanding  Officer  will  not  detail  himself  as  a 
summary  court. 

JUDGE  ADVOCATE 

Power  to  Appoint — For  each  general  or  special  court- 
martial  the  convening  authority  shall  appoint  a  judge  ad- 
vocate, and  f-or  each  general  court-martial  when  necessary, 
one  or  more  assistant  judge  advocates. 

JURISDICTION  IN  GENERAL 

Jurisdiction  Defined — The  jurisdiction  of  a  court-martial 
is  its  power  to  try  and  determine  cases  leerallv  referred  to 
it  and,  in  case  of  a  finding  of  guilty,  to  award  a  punishment 
for  the  offence  within  the  prescribed  limits. 

NATURE  OF  COURTS-MARTIAL 

Courts-martial  form  no  part  of  the  federal  judicial  system 
referred  to  in  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States.  They  are 
established  under  the  constitutional  power,  however,  to  make 
rules  for  the  government  and  regulation  of  the  land  forces, 
and  are  recognized  in  the  provisions  of  the  fifth  amendment 
expressly  exempting'  "cases  arising  in  the  land  and  naval 
forces"  from  the  requirement  as  to  presentment  and  indict- 
ment by  grand  jury.  They  are  tribunals  appointed  by  mili- 
tary orders  issued  under  authority  of  law.  Their  jurisdiction 
is  entirely  criminal.  They  have  no  power  to  adjudge 


6  To  Show  Jurisdiction 

damages  for  personal  injuries  or  private  wrongs,  nor  to  col- 
lect private  debts.  No  appeal  can  be  made  from  them,  nor 
can  they  be  set  aside  by  any  other  court.  The  United  States 
Courts,  however,  may  on  a  writ  of  habeas  corpus  inquire  into 
the  legality  of  detention  of  a  person  held  by  military  au- 
thority and  may  order  him  discharged,  if  military  jurisdic- 
tion does  not  exist.  Sentences  of  courts-martial  have  no 
legal  effect  until  they  have  received  approval  or  confirma- 
tion of  the  proper  commanding  officer. 

CONDITIONS  NECESSARY  TO  SHOW 
JURISDICTION 

(a)  That  it  was  convened  by  competent  authority. 

(b)  That  it   was  composed  of  persons  legally  competent. 

(c)  That  it  was  vested  with  power  to  try  the  person  and 
the  offence. 

(d)  That  its  sentence  was  in  accordance  with  law. 

PROCEDURE  WHEN  MILITARY  AND  CIVIL  JUR 
ISDICTION  ARE  CONCURRENT 

In  accordance  with  the  principle  of  comity  as  between  the 
civil  and  military  tribunals  in  cases  of  concurrent  jurisdic- 
tion that  which  first  attaches  in  a  particular  case  is  entitled  to 
proceed  to  its  termination.  This  is,  however,  not  an  inflex- 
ible rule. 

Cannot  be  divested  by  act  of  accused — A  court-martial 
having  assumed  jurisdiction  of  a  case,  cannot  be  prevented 
from  discharging  its  duty  by  any  wrongful  act  on  the  part 
of  the  accused,  For  instance,  if  the  accused  has  escaped 
from  military  custody  and  furnishes  no  grounds  for  the 
court's  not  proceeding  to  a  finding,  the  court  should  find  and, 
in  the  event  of  conviction,  sentence  him  as  in  any  other  case. 
In  such  a  case  it  is  proper  for  the  counsel  to  represent  the 
accused  as  though  he  were  present. 

Jurisdiction  Not  Territorial — It  extends  to  persons 
legally  subject  to  it  and  to  offences  committed  by  them  in  any 
place  whatsoever;  i.  e.  in  the  case  of  an  attache  committing 
an  offence,  when  on  foreign  duty. 

Jurisdiction  When  Terminated — Usually  military  juris- 
diction ceases  when  military  persons  sever  their  connection 


General    Courts-Martial  7 

legally  with  the  military  service  of  the  United  States.    There 
are  exceptions  to  this,  however,  as  follows: 

(a)  Persons    being    guilty    of    fraud,    embezzlement    etc., 
though  dismissed  or  discharged  from  the  service  continue  to 
be  liable  for  an  act  not  known  at  time  of  discharge. 

(b)  When   an   officer  in   time   of   war,   dismissed   by   the 
President,  applies  in  writing  for  a  trial  on  the  grounds  that 
he  was  wrongfully  dismissed,  the  President  shall  convene  a 
court-martial  to  try  the  officer  on  the  charges  for  which  he 
was  dismissed.     If  the  court-martial  is  not  convened  within 
six  months  of  the  making  of  the  application  by  the  officer, 
or  after  being  tried,  the  court  does  not  award  dismissal  or 
death,  the  President's  order  of  dismissal  shall  be  void. 

(c)  All  persons  undergoing  sentence  of  a  court-martial. 

(d)  Where  a  soldier  obtains,  a  discharge  by  fraud. 

(e)  Even  though  discharged   from  a  term  of  enlistment, 
it  does  not  relieve  the  soldier  from  the  consequence  of  de- 
sertion committed  during  a  former  term  of  enlistment. 

JURISDICTION  OF  GENERAL  COURTS-MARTIAL 

As  to  Persons  and  Offences— (a) — Any  person  subject 
to   Military  Law,   for 

(b)  Any  crime  or  offence  punishable  under  the  Articles 
of  War. 

(c)  Any  other  person  subject  to  trial  by  military  tribunals 
for  violations  of  law  of  war. 

Limits  of  Punishment — Punishment  upon  conviction  is 
discretionary  with  a  general  court-martial,   except 

(a)  When  mandatory  by  law. 

(b)  When  limited  by  order  of  the  President. 

(c)  Death  punishment  can  only  be  imposed  when  specifi- 
cally  authorized. 

JURISDICTION    OF   SPECIAL    COURTS-MARTIAL 

As  to  Persons  and  Offences — (1) — Any  person   subject 
to  military  law,  excepting 

(a)  Commissioned  officers. 

(b)  Any  person   subject  to  military   law   belonging  to   a 
class  excepted  by  the  President. 


8  Summary   Courts-Martial 

(2)  Any  crime  or  offence  not  capital,  punishable  by  ar- 
ticles of  war. 

Note. — Cadets  and  soldiers  holding  certificates  of  eligi- 
bility for  promotion  are  excepted  from  the  jurisdiction  of 
Special  Courts-Martial. 

The  following  are  capital  crimes  and  offences  under  the 
Articles  of  War 

(1)  Peace   offences : 

(a)  Assaulting  or  disobeying  a  superior  officer.  (A.  W.  64) 

(b)  Mutiny  or  sedition.   (A  W.  66) 

(c)  Failure  to  suppress  mutiny  or  sedition.  (A.  W.  67) 

(2)  War  offences: 

(a)  Desertion.     (A.  W.  58) 

(b)  Advising  or  aiding  another  to  desert.   (A.-W.  597 

(c)  Misbehavior  before  the  enemy.   (A.  W.  75) 

(d)  Subordinates    compelling    commander    to    surrender. 
(A.  W.  76) 

(e)  Improper  use  of  countersign.     (A.  W.  77) 

(f)  Forcing  a  safeguard.     (A.  W.  78) 

(g)  Relieving,      corresponding     with      or     aiding     the 
enemy.    (A.  W.   81) 

(h)     Spies.    (A.W.82) 

(i)     Misbehavior  of  sentinels.    (A.  W.  86) 

Limits  of  Punishment — A  special  courts-martial  shall 
not  have  power  to  adjudge, 

(a)  Dishonorable  discharge,  nor. 

(b)  Confinement  in  excess  of  6  months  nor 

(c)  Forfeiture  of  more  than  6  months  pay. 

Note.  Reduction  to  the  ranks  of  non-commissioned  of- 
ficers and  reduction  in  classification  of  first-class  privates  may 
be  adjudged  by  a  special  courts-martial. 

JURISDICTION  OF  SUMMARY  COURTS-MARTIAL 

As  to  Persons  and  Offences — Same  as  for  Special  courts- 
martial,  except  that  a  non-commissioned  officer,  who  objects 
to  trial  by  a  summary  court  will  not  be  tried  by  such  court, 
except  upon  the  order  of  authority  competent  to  bring  him 
before  a  general  courts-martial. 


Other  Military  Tribunals  9 

Any  crime  not  capital,  made  punishable  by  the  articles  of 
war. 

Limits  of  Punishment — A  summary  court  shall  not  ad- 
judge : 

(a)  Dishonorable  discharge. 

(b)  Confinement  in  excess  of  three  months,  nor 

(c)  Forfeiture  of  more  than  three  months  pay. 

Note.  When  summary  court  officer  is  the  Command- 
ing Officer,  no  sentence  of  such  summary  court  adjudging 
confinement  or  forfeiture,  or  both,  for  a  period  in  excess  of 
one  month,  shall  be  carried  into  execution  until  approved  by 
superior  authority. 

JURISDICTION  OF  OTHER  MILITARY 
TRIBUNALS. 

When  Concurrent  With  Courts-Martial — The  provisions 
of  the  Articles  of  War  shall  not  be  construed  as  depriving 
military  commissions,  provost  courts,  or  other  military  tribun- 
als of  concurrent  jurisdiction  in  respect  to  offenders  or  of- 
fences that  may  be  lawfully  tried  by  such  tribunals. 

ARRESTS  AND  CONFINEMENTS 

(a)  An  officer  charged  with  crime  or  serious  offence  shall 
be  placed  in  arrest,  or  may  be  placed  in  confinement  by  the 
same  authority. 

(b)  A  soldier  charged  with  crime  or  serious  offence  shall 
be  placed  in  confinement.     When  charged  with  a  minor  of- 
fence, he  may  be  placed  under  arrest. 

(c)  Any   other    person    subject   to    military   law,    charged 
with  crime  or  serious  offence  may  be  placed  under  arrest. 

Note.  Persons  under  arrest  may  be  confined;  may  be  re- 
stricted to  barracks,  quarters  or  tents,  except  when  such 
limits  are  extended  by  proper  authority.  An  officer  who 
breaks  his  arrest  or  escapes  from  confinement  shall  be  dis- 
missed, or  suffer  such  other  punishment  as  a  court-martial 
may  direct.  Other  persons  who  escape  from  confinement  or 
break  arrest  shall  be  punished  as  the  court-martial  may  direct. 

Who  May  Order  Arrests — (a)  Only  Commanding  Of- 
ficers are  empowered  to  place  officers  in  arrest,  except  as 
provided  in  Article  of  War  68. 


10  Arrests   and  Confinements 

Note.  Under  A.  W.  68,  all  officers  or  non-commis- 
sioned officers  have  power  to  part  and  quell  all  quarrels, 
frays,  and  disorder  among  persons  subject  to  military  law. 
They  may  order  officers!  taking  part  in  such  fray  or  disorder 
into  arrest,  and  place  other  persons  subject  to  military  law 
in  arrest  or  confinement,  as  the  case  may  require,  until  their 
proper  superior  officer  is  acquainted  with  the  facts.  Who- 
soever refuses  to  obey  such  an  officer  or  non-commissioned 
officer,  or  threatens  violence  to  him,  shall  be  punished  as  a 
court-martial  may  direct. 

(b)  Judge  advocates  of  courts-martial  have  no  power  to 
place  officers  or  soldiers  in  arrest,  who  are  about  to  be  tried 
by  a  court,  or  to  compel  the  attendance  of  the  accused  before 
a  court.     These    duties   pertain   to   the   convening   authority, 
commanding  officer,  or  officer  having  custody  of  the  accused. 

(c)  Courts-martial  have  no  control  over  the  nature  of  the 
arrest,  or  other  status  of  restraint  of  the  prisoner,  except  in 
regard  to  his  personal  freedom  in  its  presence.     The   Com- 
manding Officer  has  entire  control  in  such  matters. 

Arrest — How  Executed — An  officer  is  placed  under  ar- 
rest by  his  Commanding  Officer  in  person,  or  through  another 
officer  by  a  verbal  or  written  order  advising  him  that  he  is 
under  arrest,  or  will  consider  himself  under  arrest,  or  words 
to  that  effect. 

Status  of  Officer  in  Arrest — A  person  in  arrest  cannot 
exercise  command.  He  will  not  wear  a  sword,  nor  visit 
officially  his  Commanding  Officer  or  other  superior  officer, 
unless  directed  to  do  so.  His  applications  and  requests  of 
every  nature  will  be  made  in  writing. 

*  Arrest  of  Officer  Without  Preferring  Charges — Officers 
will  not  be  placed  in  arrest  for  light  offences.  Usually  the 
censure  of  the  Commanding  Officer  will  be  sufficient.  When 
the  Commanding  Officer  places  an  officer  in  arrest  without 
preferring  charges,  he  will  make  a  written  report  to  his 
Brigade  or  Coast  Artillery  District  Commander.  Such  Com- 
mander will,  if  he  thinks  necessary,  call  upon  the  officer  ar- 
rested for  any  explanation  he  may  desire  to  make,  will  take 
such  other  action  within  his  authority  as  he  may  think  neces- 
sary, and  forward  all  the  papers  with  his  recommendation 
to  the  Department  Commander.  The  Department  Commander 
will  decide  whether  or  not  trial  is  advisable  and,  either  con- 


Arrests  and   Confinements  11 

vene  a  court  for  his  trial,  or"  forward  the  papers  to  the  War 
Department  for  file  with  the  officer's  record,  or  for  other 
action.  In  the  case  where  officers  concerned  do  not  'belong 
to  a  Brigade  or  Coast  Artillery  District,  the  report  will  be 
made  to  the  officer  having  general  courts-martial  jurisdiction. 

Arrest  of  Medical  Officer — In  ordinary  cases,  where  in- 
convenience to  the  service  will  result  from  it,  a  medical  officer 
will  not  be  placed  in  arrest  until  a  court-martial  for  his  trial 
convenes. 

Arrest  and  Confinement  of  Soldiers — Except  under 
A.  W.  68,  or  when  restraint  is  necessary,  no  soldier  will  be 
confined  without  the  order  of  an  officer  who  shall  previously 
inquire  into  his  offence.  It  is  proper,  however,  for  a  Com- 
pany Commander  to  delegate  to  non-commissioned  officers 
of  his  Company  the  power  to 'place  enlisted  men  in  arrest  as 
a  means  of  restraint  at  the  instant  when  restraint  is  necessary. 
Such  action  must  be  reported  to  the  Company  Commander  at 
once. 

Status  of  Non-Commissioned  Officer  in  Arrest — A  non- 
commissioned officer  will  not  be  confined  in  company  with 
privates,  if  it  can  be  avoided.  When  in  arrest,  they  cannot 
exercise  authority  or  control  over  others.  When  in  confine- 
ment they  will  do  no  work. 

Abuse  of  Authority  to  Arrest — No  person  shall  be  con- 
tinued in  confinement  more  than  8  days  or  until  such  time  as 
a  court-martial  can  be  assembled.  The  officer  by  whose  order 
he  is  arrested  will  see  that  he  is  furnished  with  a  copy  of 
the  charges  within  8  days  after  his  arrest,  and  that  he  is 
brought  to  trial  within  10  days  thereafter  unless  the  neces- 
sities of  the  service  prevent;  in  this  event,  he  shall  be  brought 
to  trial  within  30  days  after  the  expiration  of  the  said  ten 
days.  If  the  charges  be  not  served,  or  the  arrested  person  be 
not  brought  to  trial,  in  accordance  with  the  above,  his  arrest 
shall  cease,  but  such  persons  having  been  released  from  ar- 
rest, under  the  provisions  of  Article  70,  should  be  tried  when 
conditions  permit,  within  twelve  months'  after  release  from 
arrest.  Provided,  that  in  time  of  peace  no  person  shall, 
against  his  objection,  be  brought  to  trial  before  a  general 
court-martial  within  a  period  of  five  days  subsequent  to  the 
service  of  the  charges  upon  him. 


12  Arrest   of  Deserters 

Refusal  to  Receive  and  Keep  Prisoners — No  provost 
marshal,  or  commander  of  a  guard,  shall  refuse. to  receive 
or  keep  any  prisoner  committed  to  his  charge  by  an  officer, 
provided  the  officer,  shall  at  the  time  deliver  an  account  in 
writing,  signed  by  himself,  of  the  offence  charged  against  the 
prisoner. 

Note.  Every  commander  of  a  guard  is  required  to  ren- 
der a  report  to  his  commanding  officer  within  24  hours,  or 
as  soon  as  he  is  relieved  from  his  guard,  showing  the  names 
of  prisoners  confined,  the  charges  against  them,  and  the  name 
of  the  officer  committing  them.  The  report  ordinarily  con- 
tained in  the  guard  report  book  is  sufficient. 

Placing  Prisoners  in  Irons — Prisoners  shall  not  be 
placed  in  irons,  except  when  the  commanding  officer  considers 
the  case  a  desperate  and  dangerous  one.  Such  action  and 
the  circumstances  will  be  reported  immediately  to  the  De- 
partment or  Tactical  Division  Commander.  When  a  prisoner 
is  removed  from  irons  a  similar  report  is  made  to  the  same 
officers.  When  necessary  to  prevent  the  escape  of  a  prisoner, 
he  may  be  shackled  or  handcuffed  when  being  transported 
from  one  place  of  confinement  to  another. 

Releasing    Prisoner    Without    Proper    Authority — Any 

person  in  the  military  service  who  releases  a  prisoner,  with- 
out proper  authority,  or  who  through  neglect  or  design, 
suffers  a  prisoner  to  escape,  shall  be  punished  as  the  court- 
martial  may  direct. 

ARREST  OF  DESERTERS  BY  CIVIL 
AUTHORITIES 

Authority  for  Apprehension — Any  civil  officer  having 
authority  under  the  laws  of  the  United  States,  of  any  State, 
Territory,  District  or  possession  of  the  United  States,  to 
arrest  offenders,  is  authorized  to  arrest  a  deserter  from  the 
military  service  of  the  United  States,  and  deliver  him  into 
the  custody  of  the  (military  authority. 

Authority  of  Citizens  Other  Than  Peace  Officers  to 
Arrest  Deserters — The  statute  authorizing  civil  officers  to 
apprehend  deserters  shall  not  be  construed  as  taking  away 
the  authority  for  their  apprehension  by  any  citizen  under  an 
order  or  direction  of  a  military  officer.  The  offer  of  reward 
for  the  apprehension  and  delivery  of  a  deserter  coupled  with 


Preparation  of  Charges  13 

the  Act  of  Congress,  which  provides  for  the  payment  of  such 
a  reward,  is  considered  sufficient  authority .  for  the  arrest  of 
the  deserter  by  a  citizen. 

Minority  of  Deserter— The  right  of  the  United  States 
to  arrest  and  bring  to  trial  a  deserter  is  paramount  to  any 
right  of  control  over  him  by  a  parent  on  the  ground  of  his 

inority. 


PREPARATION  OF  CHARGES 


' 


Definitions — A  charge  corresponds  to  a  civil  indictment. 
It  consists  of  two  parts — the  technical  "charge,"  which  de- 
scribes the  alleged  crime  or  offence  as  a  violation  of  a  par- 
ticular Article  of  War.  or  other  statute,  and  the  "specifica- 
tion," which  sets  forth  the  facts  constituting  the  same.  The 
requisite  of  a  charge  is  that  it  shall  be  laid  under  the  proper 
article  of  war  or  other  statute;  and  the  requisite  of  a  speci- 
fication is  that  it  shall  set  forth  in  simple  and  concise  langu- 
age facts  sufficient  to  constitute,  the  particular  offence  and  in 
such  manner  as  to  enable  a  person  of  common  understanding 
to  know  what  is  intended. 

Who  May  Initiate  Charges — Military  charges,  though 
commonly  originating  with  military  persons,  may  be  initiated 
by  civilians.  The  charge  may  likewise  originate  with  enlisted 
men.  The  formal  preferring  of  the  charge,  however,  should 
be  authenticated  by  the  signature  of  a  commissioned  officer. 
Charges  initiated  by  persons  outside  the  Army,  and  based 
upon  testimony  not  in  the  possession  of  the  military  authori- 
ties, should  be  sustained  by  affidavits  or  other  reliable  evi- 
dence. 

Who  May  Prefer  Charges— Any  person  may  prefer 
charges.  The  fact  that  an  officer  is  himself  under  charges, 
or  under  arrest,  does  not  disqualify  him  from  preferring 
charges. 

Signing  Charges — The  officer  preferring  charges  will 
sign  his  name  following  the  last  specification,  adding  his  rank 
and  organization  in  the  Army.  The  signing  of  charges,  like 
orders,  with  the  name  of  an  officer,  adding  "by  order  of"  his 
commander,  is  unusual  and  not  to  be  recommended.  The 
signature  forms  n-o  part  of  the  charges,  but  will  nevertheless 
be  copied  into  the  record,  so  that  it  may  appear  to  the  review- 


14  Preparation  of  Charges 

ing  authority  whether  or  not  the  officer  preferring  the  charges 
sat  as  a  member  of  the  court. 

Accumulation  of  Charges — The  accumulation  or  saving 
up  of  charges  through  hostile  animus  on  the  part  of  the 
accuser,  is  discountenanced  by  the  sentiment  of  the  service. 
It  may  be  expedient,  however,  where  offences  are  slight  in 
themselves  and  it  is  desirable  to  exhibit  a  continued  course 
of  misconduct  to  wait,  before  preferring  charges,  till  aperies 
of  similar  acts  have  been  committed,  provided  the  period  be 
not  unreasonably  prolonged.  In  general,  charges  should  be 
preferred  and  brought  to  trial  immediately  after  the  com- 
mission of  the  offence. 

Duplication  of  Charges — Duplication  of  charges  for  the 
same  act  will  be  avoided  except  when,  by  reason  of  lack  of 
definite  information  as  to  available  evidence,  it  may  be  neces- 
sary to  charge  the  same  act  -or  omission  as  constituting  two 
or  more  distinct  offences.  Even  though  the  court  finds  the 
accused  guilty  in  respect  to  two  or  more  specifications  de- 
scribing the  same  act,  punishment  should  only  be  given  with 
reference  to  the  act  in  its  most  serious  aspect. 

Consolidation  of  Charges — Ordinarily,  all  the  charges 
against  the  accused  should  be  consolidated  into  one  set  of 
charges  and  trial  had  upon  them  as  a  whole.  To  avoid  taking 
up  unnecessary  time  of  a  court  with  minor  offences,  they 
should  not  be  joined  with  the  more  serious  charges,  unless 
they  serve  to  explain  the  circumstances  surrounding  the  more 
serious  charges.  For  instance,  charges  for  desertion  should 
.not  ordinarily  be  joined  with  charges  for  losing  property  of 
small  value;  nor  should  charges  of  wilful  disobedience  of  * 
the  orders  of  an  officer  ordinarily  be  joined  with  charges  for 
an  absence  from  a  routine  duty. 

Refusal  to  Submit  to  Medical  Treatment — An  officer  or 
soldier  may  be  charged  for  refusing  to  submit  to  a  surgical 
operation,  or  medical  treatment,  at  the  hands  of  military 
authority,  if  it  is  designed  to  restore  or  increase  his  fitness 
for  service,  and  is  without  risk  of  life.  If  the  attending 
surgeon  is  in  doubt  as  to  whether  the  proposed  operation  in- 
volves risk  of  life,  the  soldier  will  not  be  tried,  but  will  be 
discharged  on  the  surgeon's  certificate  of  disability,  under 
the  provisions  of  Army  Regulations. 


Preparation  of  Charges  15 

Joint  Charges — When  two  or  more  persons  jointly  and 
in  pursuance  of  a  common  intent  commit  a  crime  or  offence, 
which  can  be  committed  by  several  persons  acting  in  con- 
cert, they  may  be  separately  charged  and  tried  for  such  crime 
or  offence,  or  may t be  jointly  charged  and  jointly  tried.  The 
actual  commission  of  the  offence  is  not  necessary.  All  those 
who  take  part  in  the  enterprise  are  equally  guilty,  though 
they  may  be  absent  from  the  actual  place*  of  commission  of 
the  offence.  The  fact  that  justice  may  require  that  different 
degrees  of  punishment  be  awarded  to  the  different  parties 
constitutes  no  objection,  to  a  joint  prosecution. 

Note.  The  mere  fact  of  their  committing  the  same  of- 
fence together  and  at  the  same  time,  although  material  as 
going  to  show  concert,  does  not  necessarily  establish  it.  For 
instance,  the  fact  that  several  soldiers  have  absented  them- 
selves without  leave,  together  and  at  the  same  time,  does  not 
necessarily  prove  any  concert  of  action,  but  may  be  the  result 
of  their  individually  availing  themselves  of  the  same  con- 
venient opportunity  of  leaving.  In  the  case  of  joint  charges, 
the  right  of  challenge  is  exercised  by  each  of  the  accused 
persons  separately. 

Charges  Not  to  be  Preferred  Upon  Uncorroborated 
Confession — In  the  case  of  a  confession,  charges  should 
not  be  preferred  for  an  offence,  unless  there  is  some  evidence 
other  than  the  confession  of  the  accused  that  the  offence  has 
been  committed.  This  applies  particularly,  in  cases  of  fraudu- 
lent enlistment.  The  mere  confession  by  the  accused  that  he 
had  prior  service,  or  was  disqualified  for  enlistment  at  the 
time  he  enlisted  and  concealed  that  fact,  should  not  be  made 
the  basis  of  charges,  unless  there  is  something  else  confirm- 
ing his  confession.  The  case  should  be  investigated,  how- 
ever. 

Charges  For  Private  Indebtedness — Military  authorities 
will  not  attempt  to  discipline  officers  or  soldiers  for  failure 
to  pay  disputed  private  indebtedness  or  claims ;  nor  will  the 
military  authorities  attempt  to  decide  upon  such  disputed  in- 
debtedness or  claim.  If  the  indebtedness  is  disputed,  the 
creditor  should  resort  to  civil  courts.  If,  however,  an  officer 
or  soldier  reflects  discredit  upon  the  service  by  his  failure  to 
pay  just  indebtedness,  he  may  be  brought  to  trial  for  viola- 
tions of  A.  W.  95,  or  A.  W.  96,  as  the  case  may  require,  but 
no  action  will  be  taken  by  the  military  authorities^  to  enforce 
the  payment  of  the  debt.  The  action  of  the  court  in  this  case 


Action  Upon  Charges 

xild  be  purely  disciplinary  and  not  the  act  of  a  court  of 

uity. 

Numbering    Charges    and    Specifications— Whore    there 
eral  specifications,  which  aiv  violations  of  one  ;ntuK 
;il  procedure  is  to  place  them  all  under  one 
arge,  so  that  they  will  be  known  as  1st,  2nd,  3rd,  4th. 
ecification,  "such"  article  of  \var.  Where  there  are  se\ 
tides  of  war  violated,  a  charge  will  be  made  for  each. 

Additional  Charges— New  and  separate  charges,  \\-hirh 
e  preferred  after  others  have  been  preferred,  are  known 

"additional   charges."     Such  charges   may   relate    to 
nch  were  not  known  by  the  authorities  at  the  time  of  tlu 
eferring  of  the  original  charges;  or  they  ma\  more 

rquent,  arise   from  acts  of  the  accused   subsequent   to  liU 
rest  or  confinement  on   the  original   chan  i       \,!,!it 
arges  must  be  brought  to  trial  as  such,  at  the  satin-  tinu 
the  original  charges.    After  the  court  has  been  duly  sworn 

try  the  original  charges,  any  charge*  that  arise  must  be 
e  subject  of  a  separate  trial. 

ACTION  UPON  CHARGES 

Submission  of  Charges— All  charges  for  trial  by  conrt- 
artial  will  be  prepared  in  triplicate,  usin^  the  prescribed 
arge  sheet  as  the  first  sheet  and  such  a«  hcets  of 

dinary  paper  as  are  required.    Charges  will  be  accompanied 
'  the  following,  except  when  trial  is  to  be  had  by  sum: 
urt. 

(a)  A  brief  statement  of  the  substance  of  the  evid« 
Bailable,  both  for  the  prosecution  and  for  the  defence,  and 
so  any  probable  evidence. 

(b)  In  the  case  of  a  soldier  by  properly  authentic 
idcnce  of  previous  convictions,   if  any,   of  an  offence  or 
fences  committed  by  him  during  his  current  enlistment 
ithin  one-  t  preceding  the  date  of  the  alleged  c 
ission  of  the  offences  set  forth  in  the  charges.    They  will 
i   forwarded   by  the  officer  preferring  the  charges   to  the 
immanding   officer   exercising    summary    court    jurisdiction 
rer  the  command  to  which  the  accused  belongs.    This  officer, 
id  every  superior  commander  into  whose  hands  they  come, 
ill  either  refer  them  to  a  court-martial  within  his  jurisdic- 
>n,  or  forward  them  to  the  next  superior  authority  cxercis- 


- 


It    if    tibc    4a*r    lor    t! 


A-^    ^  .      V  .  ,;      . 


1)    Wkern  tri 
•  fceoMfl 


13  The  Members 

as  the  record  of  the  trial.  A  copy  of  the  record  thus  com- 
pleted will  be  sent  to  the  Company  Commander  and  the  other 
copy,  likewise  completed,  will  be  transmitted  with  the  least 
practicable  delay  to  the  officer  exercising  general  court-mar- 
tial jurisdiction  over  the  command,  in  whose  office  it  will  be 
filed  and  at  the  end  of  two  years  it  will  be  destroyed. 

(b)  When  trial  is  to  be  had  by  special  or  general 
court-martial,  the  charges  and  one  copy  thereof  will  be  re- 
ferred to  the  trial  judge  advocate  (the  judge  advocate  of  the 
court-martial  which  tries  the  case).  The  trial  judge  advocate 
will  furnish  the  accused  or  his  counsel  with  a  copy  and  the 
other  copy  will  be  retained  in  the  office  of  the  officer  appoint- 
ing the  court.  The  top  fold  of  this  copy  of  the  charge  sheet, 
in  case  of  trial  by  a  general  court-martial,  will  be  detached 
at  the  proper  time  and  forwarded  with  the  record  of  the  trial 
to  the  Judge  Advocate  General  of  the  Army. 

Service  of  Charges  Upon  Accused — In  order  that  the 
accused  may  have  time  to  prepare  for  -his  defence,  it  is  pro- 
vided that,  in  time  of  peace  no  person  shall,  against  his 
objection,  be  brought  to  trial  before  a  general  court-martial 
within  a  period  of  five  days  subsequent  to  the  service  of 
charges  upon  him  if  he  objects  thereto. 

THE  MEMBERS 

Place  and  Time  of  Meeting — The  authority  appointing 
general  or  special  courts-martial  designates  the  place  for  hold- 
ing the  court,  the  hour  of  meeting,  the  members  of  the  court, 
and  the  judge  advocate.  A  general  or  special  court-martial 
assembles  at  its  first  session  at  the  time  and  place  designated 
in  the  order  convening  it;  thereafter,  according  to  adjourn- 
ment. A  member  of  a  court-martial  stationed  at  a  place 
where  the  court  sits  is  liable  to  duty  with  his  command  dur- 
ing adjournment.  Subject  to  the  orders  of  the  convening 
authority,  the  court  determines  the  hours  of  holding  this 
session. 

Uniform — It  is  customary  for  members  of  general 
courts'-martial  and  witnesses  to  appear  in  court  in  dress  uni- 
form with  side  arms.  The  judge  advocate  should  wear  the 
uniform  of  the  court  without  side  arms.  The  accused  is 
usually  required  to  appear  in  dress  uniform,  if  he  possesses 
one,  and  if  the  court  is  so  uniformed.  The  President  of  the 
court,  however,  may  decide  that  it  is  impracticable  for  the 


The  Members  19 

court  to  sit  in  dress  uniform  and  direct  that  they  appear  in 
service  uniform.  When  practicable  a  deserter  will  be  tried 
in  the  clothing  in  which  he  was  apprehended. 

Call  to  Order — When  the  court  is  ready  to  proceed,  it 
is  called  to  orderly  the  President. 

Sitting  of  the  Court — Members  will  be  seated  according 
to  rank,  alternately  to  the  right  and  left  of  the  president. 
The  judge  advocate,  the  accused,  and  his  counsel,  are  seated 
so  as  to  be  most  easily  seen  and  heard  by  all  the  members 
of  the  court.  The  reporter  should  be  seated  near  the  judge 
advocate. 

Roll  Call — At  the  beginning  of  each  session  the  judge 
advocate  verifies  the  presence  or  absence  of  the  members  of 
the  court  by  calling  each  officer's  name  or  by  informally 
noting  his  presence  or  absence.  This  verification  is  noted  in 
the  record. 

Introduction  of  the  Accused— When    the    accused    and 

his  counsel  appear  before  the  court  for  the  first  time,  the 
judge  advocate  will  announce  their  names  to  the  court. 

Absence  of  a  Member — When  a  member  of  a  court- 
martial  has  reason  to  believe  that  he  will,  for  a  proper  rea- 
son, be  absent  from  a  session  of  the  court,  he  will  inform 
the  judge  advocate  accordingly.  When  a  member  of  a  court- 
martial  is  absent  from  a  session  thereof,  the  judge  advocate 
win  cause  that  fact  and  the  reason  for  the  absence  to  be 
shown  in  the  record  of  the  proceedings.  If  the  reason  be 
unknown  it  will  be  so  stated.  In  the  case  of  absence,  the  con- 
vening authority  will  take  such  action  as  he  deems  proper. 

Voting — Members  of  a  general  or  special  court-martial, 
in  giving  their  votes,  shall  begin  with  the  junior  in  rank.  A 
tie  vote  on  the  findings  is  a  vote  of  "not  guilty;"  a  tie  vote 
on  any  question  is  the  equivalent  of  a  vote  in  the  negative. 

»When  the  offence  charged  includes  a  minor  offence,  voting 
will  be  first  had  upon  the  major  offence.  All  convictions  and 
sentences  (other  than  those  involving  death),  whether  by 
general  or  special  court-martial  may  be  determined  by  a  ma- 
jority of  the  members  present.  Refusal  to  vote  on  any  ques- 
tion arising  during  the  proceedings  constitutes  conduct  to 
the  prejudice  of  good  order  and  military  discipline;  and  is 
punishable  under  A.  W.  96. 


20  The  Members 

Decorum  to  be  Observed — Trials  before  courts-martial 
will  be  conducted  with  the  decorum  observed  in  civil  courts. 
Members  should  be  dignified  and  attentive.  Reading  of  news- 
papers or  other  evidence  of  inattention  on  the  part  of  mem- 
bers during  session  is  a  neglect  of  duty  to  the  prejudice  of 
good  order  and  military  discipline.  The  president  of  the 
court  will  admonish  against  improper  conduct  on  the  part  of 
members  and  prefer  charges  when  necessary. 

Punishment  of  Members — A  court-martial  cannot 
punish  its  own  members.  Members  are  liable  to  charges  and 
trial  for  improper  conduct  as  for  any  other  offence  against 
military  discipline. 

The  Opening  of  the  Case  and  Arraignment— During  the 
reading  of  the  order  appointing  the  court  and  the  arraign- 
ment of  the  accused,  the  judge  advocate,  the  accused  and  his 
counsel,  will  stand.  The  arraignment  consists  of  reading  to 
the  court  and  to  the  accused  the  charges  upon  which  the 
accused  is  to  be  tried.  While  the  court  and  the  judge  advo- 
cate are  being  sworn,  all  persons  concerned  with  the  trial, 
including  any  spectators  present,  will  stand.  When  the  re- 
porter, an  interpreter,  or  a  witness,  is  being  sworn,  he  and 
the  judge  advocate  will  stand.  When  the  judge  advocate,  the 
accused,  or  his  counsel  addresses  the  court,  he  will  rise. 

Control  of  Court  Over  Accused — A  court-martial  has 
no  control  over  the  nature  of  the  arrest  or  other  status  of 
restraint  of  a  prisoner,  except  as  regards  his  personal  free- 
dom in  its  presence. 

Note.  Prisoners  will  not  be  brought  before  a  court- 
martial  in  irons,  unless  it  be  necessary  as  a  means  of  re- 
straint to  prevent  violence  or  escape.  However,  the  fact 
that  a  prisoner  has  been  tried  in  irons  cannot  in  any  case 
affect  the  validity  of  the  proceedings. 

Duties  of  the  President — The  president  of  the  court  will 
not  be  announced.  The  officer,  senior  in  rank,  present  will 
act  as  such.  The  president  does  not  by  virtue  of  being  such 
exercise  command  of  any  kind.  As  the  organ  of  the  court 
he  directs  the  necessary  regular  and  proper  conduct  of  the 
proceedings.  Should  a  member  of  the  court  disobey  an 
order  of  the  president,  he  is  not  chargeable  under  the  sixty- 
fourth  Article  of  War,  but  may  be  court-martialed  for  con- 
duct to  the  prejudice  of  good  order  and  military  discipline. 
Neither  the  court  nor  the  president  may  place  the  judge 


The  Members  21 


advocate  in  arrest.  The  president  has  an  equal  vote  with 
other  members  in  deciding  all  questions.  He  speaks  and  acts 
for  the  court  in  every  instance  when  necessary.  He  has  no 
authority  to  open  or  close  the  court  or  make  any  ruling 
whatsoever,  without  the  acquiescence  of  the  court,  or  by 
custom  of  the  service. 

He  administers  the  -oath  to  the  judge  advocate  and  authen- 
ticates all  acts,  orders  and  proceedings  of  the  court,  by  his 
signature.  It  is  his  duty  to  insure  prompt  trial  and  dis- 
position of  all  charges  referred  to  the  court  for  trial. 

%  Closed  Session — To  avoid  disclosing  the  vote  or  opinion 
of  a  member  on  any  question  arising,  the  court  will  go  into 
closed  session.  Closing  the  Court  is  effected  in  two  ways : 

1.  The   usual   method   is  to   cause   the  judge   advocate, 
the  accused,   his   counsel,   the  witness,   the  reporter,  and  the 
interpreter,  if  any,  and  all  spectators,  to  withdraw  from  the 
courtroom,  leaving  only  the  members  of  the  court  proper  in 
the   room. 

2.  It  may  be  more  convenient,  however,  and  is  permis- 
sible for  the  court  to  withdraw  to  another  room. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  close  the  court  in  every  case  requir- 
ing the  action  of  the  court — 

Where  action  may  be  had  by  unanimous  consent  without 
disclosing  the  vote  or  opinion  of  a  member  the  President 
may  announce  that  without  objection  the  so  and  so — For 
example  should  the  judge  advocate  request  a  recess  the 
President  may  announce  that  "If  there  is  no  objection  the 
court  will  take  a  recess". 

Sitting  With  Closed  Doors — While  it  is  customary  for 
courts-martial  proceedings  to  be  conducted  with  doors  open 
to  the  public,  it  is  nevertheless  authorized,  in  the  discretion 
of  the  court,  to  close  the  doors  to  the  public,  when  the  case 
being  tried  is  of  a  scandalous  nature. 

Change  of  Membership— While  it  is  undesirable  to 
change  the  membership  of  a  court  during  a  trial  the  appoint- 
ing authority  has  power  to  relieve  members  and  to  add  new 
members  to  the  court  at  any  time  when  necessary. 

The  promotion  of  a  member  does  not  affect  his  status 
with  the  court,  except  that  he  will  sit  according  to  his  new 
rank.  The  rule  is  that  no  member  who  has  been  absent 
during  the  taking  of  evidence  in  a  case  shall  take  part  in 
the  trial,  but  non-observance  of  this  rule  shall  not  invalidate 


22  The  Judge   Advocate 

the  proceedings,  if  no  objection  has  been  made  to  his  sitting. 
The  rule  will  be  complied  with  when  practicable.  When  a 
member  is  permitted  to  resume  his  seat  after  an  absence 
during  which  important  testimony  has  been  taken,  all  pro- 
ceedings and  evidence  presented  during  his  absence  shall  be 
read  to  him  in  open  court  and  the  record  should  so  indicate. 


THE  JUDGE  ADVOCATE 

Selection — The  Judge  advocate  should  be  carefully 
selected  for  his  efficiency  in  that  capacity.  Where  it  can  be 
avoided,  a  judge  advocate  will  not  be  selected  unless  he  has 
had  experience  as  an  assistant  judge  advocate. 

General  Duties — The  judge  advocate  of  courts-martial 
shall  prosecute  in  the  name  of  the-  United  States  and  shall, 
under  the  supervision  of  the  court,  prepare  the  record  of 
its  proceedings.  He  will  attend  to  the  following  matters : 

(a)  Arrange  for  a  suitable  room. 

(b)  .Procure   and  arrange   furniture,   statiorery,   etc. 

(c)  Summons   witnesses   and  make  preliminary  exam- 
inations of  them. 

(d)  Execute  the  orders  of  the  court. 

(e)  Read    the    orders    affecting    the    personnel    of    the 
court. 

(f)  Administer  oath  to  members,  reporter,  interpreter 
and  all  witnesses. 

(g)  Arraign  the  accused. 

(h)     Examine  witnesses  in  court. 
(i)     Keep,  or  superintend  the  keeping  of,  the  record. 
(j)     Sign  each  day's  proceedings. 
(k)     Notify   members    of   subsequent   meetings. 
(1)     Prepare  record  and  present  it  to  president  for  sig- 
nature. 

(m)  Will  sign  record  and  forward  to  Reviewing  au- 
thority. 

(n)  Prepare  vouchers  for  payment  of  reporters,  inter- 
preter and  witnesses. 

Authentication  of  Record— The  record  is  authenticated 
by  the  signature  of  the  president  and  of  the  judge  advo- 


1 


The  Judge  Advocate  23 

cate.  If,  on  account  of  death  or  other  cause,  the  judge 
advocate  cannot  sign  the  record,  it  will  be  signed  by  the 
assistant  judge  advocate  if  there  be  one.  If  there  be  none, 
it  shall  be  signed  by  one  other  member  of  the  court. 

Duty  of  Judge  Advocate  Toward  the  Accused — Should 
the  accused  not  be  represented  by  counsel,  the  judge  ad- 
vocate will,  from  time  to  time,  advise  him  of  his  legal  rights. 
He  should  acquaint  the  prisoner  of 

(a)  The  accusations  against  him. 

(b)  Right  to   counsel. 

(c)  Right  to   testify  in   his   own  behalf. 

(d)  Right  to  a  copy  of  the  charges. 

While  he  may  ask  a  prisoner  how  he  intends  to  plead,  he 
must  not  try  to  induce  him  to-  plead  guilty  by  inferring  that, 
if  he  does  so,  his  sentence  will  be  lighter.  If  the  accused 
intends  to  plead  guilty,  the  judge  advocate  should  inform  him 
of  his  right  to  introduce  evidence  in  explanation  of  his 
offence  and  should  assist  him  in  securing  it.  During  the 
trial,  he  will  see  that  the  accused  has  every  right  to  which 
he  is  entitled.  He  will  assist  the  accused  in  his  defence 
and  endeavor  to  bring  out  the  facts  in  the  case. 

Examination  of  Charges — The  judge  advocate  will  care- 
fully examine  the  charges  and  report  to  the  convening  au- 
thority any  irregularities  which  appear  to  exist.  He  will 
himself  correct  slight  errors,  but  will  not  without  authority 
of  the  convening  officer,  ,make  any  substantial  changes  in 
the  'charges  or  specifications. 

Truth  to  be  Presented — The  judge  advocate  will  do 
his  best  to  present  the  whole  truth  in  the  matter  in  question. 
He  will  not  distort  or  suppress  facts  and  will  oppose  any 
effort  to  do  so. 

As  Legal  Adviser  of  the  Court — The  judge  advocate 
should  respectfully  call  the  attention  of  the  court  to  appar- 
ent irregularities  in  its  action  or  proceedings  and  will  only 
give  legal  advice  when  asked  for  it  by  the  court.  In  case 
the  accused  pleads  guilty,  when  necessary,  he  will  invite 
the  attention  of  the  president  of  the  court  to  the  fact  that 
the  effect  of  such  a  plea  (must  be  explained  to  the  accused. 

Conduct  of  the  Case — The  judge  advocate  should  be 
left  free  to  conduct  the  case  as  he  sees  fit.  The  court,  how- 


24  Assistant  Judge  Advocate 

ever,  is  responsible  for  the  thorough  investigation  of  the 
case  and  need  not  content  itself  with  the  evidence  presented 
by  the  prosecution  or  defence.  It  is  proper  for  the  court  as 
a  body,  or  for  any  member,  to  ask  questions  of  a  witness. 
Such  questions,  however,  are  not  asked  until  the  prosecu- 
tion and  defence  have  completed  their  questioning  of  the 
witness.  The  court  may  direct  the  judge  advocate  to  recall 
any  witness  at  any  time,  or  to  take  any  action  whereby  the 
facts  in  the  case  may  be  more  clearly  presented. 

The  Judge  Advocate  Not  to  be  Challenged— The  ac- 
cused has  no  right  to  challenge  the  judge  advocate.  In  case 
of  interest  in  the  case,  or  personal  hostility  to  the  accused, 
he  should  apply  to  be  relieved  from  duty  as  judge  advocate 
in  the  case. 

Weekly  Reports — The  judge  advocate  of  a  general 
court-martial  will  report  through  the  president  of  the  court 
and  commanding  officer  of  the  post  to  the  appointing  au- 
thority on  Saturday  of  each  week,  a  list  of  charges  on  hand 
with  the  date  of  receipt  of  each,  and  if  any  case  has  been 
in  his  possession  for  one  week  or  more,  without  trial,  an 
explanation  will  be  rendered. 

Detail  of  Orderlies,  &c. — The  commanding  officer  will 
detail,  when  necessary,  suitable  soldiers,  or  clerks,  or  or- 
derlies, to  assist  the  judge  advocate. 

ASSISTANT  JUDGE  ADVOCATE 

Appointment — The  authority  appointing  a  general 
court-martial  shall  appoint  one  or  more  assistant  judge  ad- 
vocates, when  necessary.  The  assistant  shall  be  competent 
to  perform  any  duty  devolving  by  law,  regulation  -or  custom, 
upon  a  judge  advocate. 

It  is  usual  for  the  assistant  judge  advocate  to  perform 
routine  duties  such  as  the  preparation  of  the  court-room, 
notification  of  members,  summoning  of  witness,  &c.,  leaving 
the  conduct  of  the  case  to  the  judge  advocate. 

COUNSEL 

Appointment — The  accused  has  the  right  to  be  repre- 
sented by  counsel.  Civilian  counsel  will  not  be  provided  at 
government  expense.  Should  the  accused  request  the  ap- 


Questioning1  of  Witnesses  25 

pointment  of  an  officer  stationed  where  the  court  sits  and 
the  officer  be  not  a  member  of  the  court,  he  will  be  detailed 
as  counsel  by  the  commanding  officer,  if  practicable.  Should 
the  officer  requested  be  not  available  to  the  commanding  of- 
ficer, the  accused  may  appeal  to  the  appointing  authority, 
whose  decision  is  final.  It  is  customary  foi  the  commanding 
officer  of  the  post  or  camp  where  the  trial  is  held  to  detail 
a  suitable  officer  to  act  as  counsel  for  the  accused.  The 
right  to  counsel  does  not  exist  in  case  of  trials  by  a  sum- 
mary court. 

Duty  of  Counsel — The  officer  acting  as  counsel  shall 
perform  the  duties  which  usually  devolve  upon  the  counsel 
for  the  defence  before  civil  courts,  in  criminal  cases.  He 
shall  guard  the  interests  of  the  accused  by  all  honorable 
and  legitimate  means,  but  shall  not  obstruct  the  proceedings 
by  frivolous  and  useless  objections  and  discussions. 

Right  of  the  Accused  to  Interview — The  accused  will 
be  permitted  to  interview  his  counsel  and  witnesses  for  the 
defence  as  often  as  is  necessary  for  the  proper  preparation 
of  his  defence. 

QUESTIONING  OF  WITNESSES 

When  there  is  no  reporter  all  questions  will  be  reduced  to 
writing.  If  the  court  has  a  stenographic  reporter,  all  ques- 
tioning may  be  done  orally. 

REPORTER 

Employment — Under  such  regulations  as  the  Secretary 
of  War  prescribes,  the  president  of  a  court-martial  or  mili- 
tary commission,  or  a  court  of  inquiry,  has  power  to  appoint 
a  reporter,  who  shall  record  the  proceedings  of,  and  testi- 
mony taken  before  the  tribunal. 

Reporters  are  only  employed  when  especially  authorized 
by  the  appointing  authority.  This  authorization  is  usually 
stated  in  the  order  appointing  the  court.  Reporters  •  for 
special  courts-martial  will  not  be  authorized,  except  when 
the  appointing  authority  requires  the  testimony  to  be  re- 
duced to  writing.  The  reporter  of  a  court-martial  is  usually 
a  civilian  stenographer.  A  soldier  may  be  detailed  to  serve 
as  a  reporter  before  the  above  mentioned  military  tribunals, 


26  Interpreter 

who  shall  receive  a  certain  pay  differing  from  that  paid  a 
civilian  reporter. 

Completion  of  Record — The  judge  advocate  or  recorder 
shall  require  the  record  of  the  proceedings  for  each  session 
to  be  finished,  together  with  one  carbon  copy  of  the  same, 
not  later  than  twenty-four  hours  after  the  adjournment  of 
the  session.  The  complete  record  will  be  completed  and 
ready  for  authentication  not  later  than  forty-eight  hours 
after  the  final  adjournment  in  the  case. 

Extra  Compensation  For  Clerical  Duties — No  person  in 
the  military  or  civil  service  can  lawfully  receive  extra  com- 
pensation for  clerical  duties  performed  for  a  court,  except 
as  provided  for  in  a  detail  of  a  soldier  as  reporter. 

INTERPRETER 

Under  such  regulations  as  the  Secretary  of  War  may  pre- 
scribe, the  president  of  a  court-martial,  military  commission, 
court  of  inquiry,  or  summary  court,  may  appoint  an  inter- 
preter, when  necessary.  It  is  not  necessary  to  obtain  the 
authority  of  the  appointing  -officer  as  in  the  case  of  reporter. 
They  are  paid  at  the  same  rate  as  civilian  witnesses. 

CHALLENGES 

When  the  names  of  the  members  of  the  court-martial  who 
are  present,  have  been  read  to  the  accused,  upon  his  intro- 
duction to  the  court,  he  is  asked  by  the  judge  advocate 
whether  he  objects  to  being  tried  by  any  member  present. 
Should  he  reply  in  the  negative,  the  court  and  judge  advo- 
cate will  be  sworn.  If  he  states  that  he  objects  to  being 
tried  by  a  member,  he  will  state  also  the  grounds  upon  which 
he  makes  his  objection,  to  which  the  challenged  member  is 
given  an  opportunity  to  reply.  The  challenged  member 
withdraws  and  the  court  is  closed  and  decides  as  to  whether 
or  not  the  objection  is  to  be  sustained.  When  the  court  is 
opened  the  president  announces  the  decision  and  the  member 
is  either  excused  or  permitted  to  continue  to  sit  in  the  case. 
In  this  ,matter  the  accused  is  given  the  right  to  challenge 
individually  any  and  all  members  of  the  court.  Neither  a 
summary  court  officer  nor  a  judge  advocate  is  subject  to 
challenge. 


Grounds  for  Challenge  27 

GROUNDS  FOR  CHALLENGE: 

(a)  Principal  Challenges. 

(1)  That    he    took    part    in    the    investigation    of    the 
charges,   officially. 

(2)  That   he   personally    investigated   the    charges    and 
had  expressed  an   opinion  in  the  matter  as  to  the  guilt  or 
innocence  'of  the  accusevd. 

(3)  That   he   is   the   accuser. 

(4)  That  he  is  a  witness  for  the  prosecution. 

(5)  That   upon   a   re-hearing  of  the   case,   he   sat  as  a 
member  on  the  former  trial. 

(6)  That   in    the    case    of   the   trial    of   an    officer,   the 
member  will  be  promoted  by  the  dismissal  of  the  accused. 

(7)  That  he  is  related  to  the  accused. 

(8)  That    he    has    a    declared    enmity    against    the    ac- 
cused. 

(b)  Challenges  For  Favor. 

Where  prejudice,  hostility,  bias,  or  intimate  personal 
friendship  are  alleged,  it  is  for  the  court,  after  hearing  the 
grounds  of  challenge  stated  and  the  reply  of  the  challenged 
member,  or  any  other  evidence  presented,  to  determine 
whether  or  not  the  member  is  disqualified. 

Challenge  of  New  Member — When  new  members  join 
the  court,  the  accused  shall  be  given  the  opportunity  to  chal- 
lenge them.  The  record  in  each  case  must  show  that  the  right 
to  challenge  has  been  given  the  accused,  not  only  at  the 
original  session,  but  at  any  time  that  new  members  join  the 
court. 

Challenge  By  Judge  Advocate — By  a  custom  of  the 
service  the  judge  advocate  may  also  challenge,  for  cause,  in 
the  sa,me  manner  as  the  accused. 

Member  Cannot  Challenge — There  is  no  authority  for 
a  member  of  a  court-martial  to  challenge  another  member, 
but  when  a  member  has  knowledge  of  the  fact  that  another 
member  is  the  accuser  or  a  witness  for  the  prosecution,  he 
will  so  notify  the  court  in  order  that  proper  action  may  be 
taken. 

Member  Disqualified  But  Not  Challenged — In  the  ab- 
sence of  a  challenge,  the  court  cannot  excuse  a  member  from 


28  Oaths 

sitting  on  a  case.  A  member  not  challenged,  'who  thinks  him- 
self disqualified  for  certain  reasons,  may  announce  in  open 
court  his  supposed  disqualification  in  order  that  he  may  be 
challenged,  or  he  may  apply  to  the  appointing  authority  to 
be  relieved. 

Waiver  of  Objection — The  rule  is — challenges  should 
be  made  before  the  arraignment,  but  if  an  objection  to  the 
competency  of  a  member  was  known  and  not  made  at  that 
time,  it  is  considered  to  be  waived.  If  the  incompetency, 
however,  was  not  known  at  the  time  of  the  arraignment,  the 
challenge  may  be  made  at  any  stage  of  the  proceedings. 

Liberality    in    Matters    Pertaining    to    Challenges — The 

court  should  be  liberal  in  passing  upon  challenges,  but  the 
objections  must  be  specific,  and  should  not  be  sustained  upon 
the  mere  assertion  of  the  accused,  except  where  it  is  ad- 
mitted by  the  challenged  member. 

Invalidated  Cases — In  cases  which  are  invalidated  be- 
cause of  failure  to  excuse  a  member  who  is  the  accuser  or 
a  witness  for  the  prosecution,  a  new  trial  may  be  ordered. 

Member.  Witness  For  the  Defence— The  fact  that  a 
member  is  a  witness  for  the  defence  does  not  necessarily 
disqualify  him. 

Member  Called  As  Witness  By  the  Court— Should  a 
member  of  the  court  be  called  as  a  witness  for  the  prose- 
cution, the  character  of  his  testimony  should  be  carefully 
considered  and,  in  case  of  doubt  as  to  the  justice  of  his  sit- 
ting as  a  member,  he  should  be  excused. 

OATHS 

Oaths  of  Members — After  the  challenges  have  been  dis- 
posed of,  the  judge  advocate  will  administer  the  oath  to  the 
court.  In  cases  where  members  object  to  taking  an  oath, 
the  closing  sentence  of  adjuration  may  be  omitted.  Mem- 
bers of  the  court  are  sworn  for  each  case  tried. 

Oath  of  Judge  Advocate — The  court  having  been  sworn 
by  the  judge  advocate,  the  president  administers  the  oath  to 
the  judge  advocate.  During  the  administering  of  oaths  ^all 
persons  in  the  courtroom  are  required  to  stand.  In  taking 
an  oath  the  head  and  the  right  hand  will  be  bare  and  the 
right  hand  raised. 


Continuance  29 


Other  Oaths — The  judge  advocate  administers  all  other 
oaths  in  connection  with  the  trial,  including  witnesses,  re- 
porters, interpreters,  &c. 

Oaths  to  Test  Competency — When  a  member  of  a 
general  or  special  court-martial  is  challenged  and  it  is  de- 
sired to  question  him  regarding  his  eligibility,  the  judge  ad- 
vocate will  administer  to  him  the  following  oath: 

"You  swear  that  you  will  true  answers  make  to  all  ques- 
tions touching  your  competency  as  a  member  of  the  court  in 
this  case.  So  help  you  God?" 

This  is  called  placing  a  member  upon  his  voire  dire. 

CONTINUANCE 

Continuance — A  continuance  is  a  delay  granted  to  the 
prosecution  or  defence  in  proceeding  with  the  trial.  It  is 
usually  given  in  order  to  allow  the  judge  advocate  or  the 
counsel  to  procure  evidence,  or  to  otherwise  prepare  the 
case. 

Authority  For— A  court-martial  may,  for  reasonable 
cause,  grant  a  continuance  to  either  party  for  such  time  and 
as  often  as  may  appear  to  be  just.  If  an  application  for  an 
extended  delay  appears  to  be  well  founded  it  should  be  re- 
ferred to  the  appointing  authority  for  his  decision.  If  the 
counsel  for  the  accused  has  not  taken  proper  advantage  of 
opportunities  to  prepare  his  case,  the  court  may  decide  that 
the  right  to  a  continuance  does  not  exist. 

ARRAIGNMENT 

The  arraignment  consists  of  the  reading  by  the  judge  ad- 
vocate to  the  court  and  to  the  accused,  of  the  charges  and 
specifications  against  the  accused. 

PLEAS 

Procedure — Charges  and  specifications  having  been 
read,  the  accused  is  required  to  plead  to  each  specification  of 
the  first  charge  separately,  and  then  to  the  first  charge.  He 
then  pleads  to  each  specification  of  the  second  charge  sepa- 
rately and  then  to  the  second  charge,  and  so  on. 


30  Attendance  of  Witnesses 

Kinds  of  Pleas — Special  Pleas  are  pleas  to  the  jurisdic- 
tion, pleas  in  abatement,  and  pleas  in  bar  of  trial.  Then 
there  is  what  is  known  as  a  plea  to  the  general  issue. 

A  plea  to  the  jurisdiction  denies  the  right  of  the  court 
to  try  the  case  for  certain  reasons  given.  Pleas  in  abate- 
ment are  based  upon  some  defect  in  the  charge  or  specifi- 
cation and  usually  only  operate  to  delay  the  trial. 

Pleas  in  bar  of  trial,  if  sustained,  are  substantial  and 
conclusive  answers  to  particular  charges  or  specifications. 
One  of  the  most  usual  pleas  in  bar  is  the  Statute-  of  Limi- 
tations, which  deprives  the  Government  of  the  power  to 
try  and  punish  an  offender  after  a  specified  period  has  elapsed 
since  the  offence  was  committed  and  under  certain  condi- 
tions. 

Another  plea  in  bar  often  arises  by  reason  -of  the  law 
prohibiting  the  trial  of  a  person  a  second  time  for  the  same 
offence.  A  pardon  may  also  be  the  basis  of  a  plea  in  bar. 

Pleas  to  the  General  Issue — This  term  is  applied  where 
the  accused  pleads  guilty  or  not  guilty  to  each  charge  in 
the  specification,  or  guilty  to  a  portion  of  a  specification  and 
not  guilty  of  the  other  portion,  etc. 

Change  of  Plea — A  court-martial  may  permit  an  ac- 
cused to  withdraw  a  plea  of  guilty  and  substitute  one  of  not 
guilty,  or  vice  versa. 

Taking  of  Testimony  on  Plea  of  Guilty — The  mere  fact 
that  the  accused  pleads  guilty  does  not  necessarily  pre- 
clude the  taking  of  testimony  upon  behalf  of  either  the 
prosecution  or  the  defence.  It  may  be  desirable  to  introduce 
witnesses  to  show  the  extent  or  degree  of  guilt  of  the  ac- 
cused or  the  seriousness  of  the  offence.  The  accused  may,  in 
making  his  plea,  plead  guilty  of  a  lesser  kindred  offence,  that 
is,  guilty  of  an  offence  of  the  same  general  nature,  but  less 
serious.  (Statute  of  limitations,  see  app.) 

ATTENDANCE  OF  WITNESSES 

Process  to  Obtain  Witnesses — Every  judge  advocate  of 
a  general  or  special  court-martial,  and  every  summary  court- 
martial,  shall  have  power  to  issue  process  to  compel  wit- 
nesses to  appear  and  testify,  as  in  the  case  of  courts  of  the 
United  States  with  criminal  jurisdiction.  Such  process  shall 


Attendance  of  Witnesses  31 

run  to  any  part  of  the  United  States,  its  territories  and 
possessions.  The  court,  in  its  discretion  may  also  direct  the 
judge  advocate  to  require  the  presence  of  a  witness. 

Subpoena — For  the  attendance  of  civilian  witnesses  a 
subpoena  will  he  issued  in  duplicate.  It  may  be  legally  served 
by  a  person  in  the  military  service  or  a  civilian.  Usually 
it  is  served  by  an  officer  or  a  non-commissioned  officer. 
Proof  of  service  is  made  by  indorsing  on  the  remaining 
copy  a  sworn  statement  that  the  service  was  made.  If  the 
witness  cannot  be  found  the  judge  advocate  should  be  in- 
formed. A  judge  advocate  cannot  subpoena  a  civilian  wit- 
ness to  appear  before  himself  for  preliminary  examination. 

Summoning  of  Witnesses — The  judge  advocate  will 
summon  the  necessary  witnesses  for  the  trial,  but  will  not 
do  so  where  expense  to  the  Gov.ern,ment  is  involved  without 
the  order  of  the  court,  unless  satisfied  that  their  testimony 
is  material  and  necessary.  The  summoning  of  witnesses  for 
the  prosecution  and  the  defence  is  done  by  the  judge  ad- 
vocate. Where  the  summoning  of  a  number  of  witnesses  at 
the  request  of  the  defence  will  result  in  unreasonable  in- 
convenience or  expense  to  the  government,  the  judge  advo- 
cate will  use  his  discretion  in  the  matter. 

Advance  Notice  to  Witnesses— The  judge  advocate  will 
endeavor  to  issue  subpoenas  to  civilian  witnesses  at  such 
time  as  to  give  them  at  least  twenty-four  hours  notice  be- 
fore starting  to  attend  th^  court. 

Attendance  of  Military  Witnesses — The  attendance  of 
military  witnesses  stationed  where  the  court  is  sitting, 
or  where  no  expense  will  be  involved  in  getting  to  and  from 
the  court,  will  ordinarily  be  obtained  by  informal  notice  sent 
by  the  judge  advocate  to  the  person  concerned.  If  for  any 
reason  a  formal  notice  is  required,  the  judge  advocate  will 
request  the  proper  commanding  officer  to  order  the  witness 
to  attend. 

The  attendance  of  witnesses  involving  cost  for  travel  must 
be  issued  by  the  department  or  other  proper  commander.  No 
fee  will  be  paid  to  military  witnesses.  Military  witnesses 
are  given  only  such  mileage  allowance  as  is  due  them  under 
ordinary  travel  orders.  Retired  persons  (officers  or  soldiers), 
not  on  active  duty,  appear  before  courts  under  the  same  rules 
and  are  entitled  to  the  same  fees  as  civilian  witnesses  who 
are  not  in  the  govenmejit  employ. 


32  Attendance  of  Witnesses 

Procedure  to  Secure  Attendance  of  Civilian  Witnesses 

— Ordinarily  the  judge  advocate  will  endeavor  to  secure  the 
attendance  of  a  civilian  witness  by  informal  means,  sending 
him  the  duplicate  subpoena  properly  filled  out,  with  a  request 
to  accept  service  thereon  and  to  return  it  to  the  judge  ad- 
vocate. A  penalty  envelope  shall  be  enclosed  for  the  pur- 
pose. If  such  informal  methods  are  ineffective,  formal  sub- 
poena will  be  issued,  with  a  view  to  service  by  the  proper 
person.  Should  the  person  desired  as  a  witness  reside  else- 
where than  at  or  near  the  place  where  the  court  is  sitting, 
but  is  near  another  military  post,  the  subpoena  will  be  sent 
to  the  commander  of  that  post  with  request  that  he  cause 
it  to  be  served.  Should  travel  be  necessary  for  the  service 
of  this  subpoena,  it  will  be  sent  to  the  authority  competent 
to  issue  the  travel  order  with  request  that  it  be  served. 

Accused  to  be  Confronted  With  Witnesses — The  ac- 
cused must  be  confronted  with  witnesses  in  capital  cases. 
Depositions  cannot  be  introduced  in  capital  cases.  When  the 
judge  advocate  believes  that  the  interests  of  justice  demand 
that  the  accused  be  confronted  by  a  witness  against  him  or 
believes  for  any  reason  that  a  witness  should  testify  in  the 
presence  of  the  court,  he  will  take  the  necessary  steps  to 
secure  the  attendance  of  such  witness. 

Books,  Documents  or  Papers — If  a  civilian  has  in  his 
possession  a  book,  document,  or  paper,  desired  to  be  intro- 
duced in  evidence,  what  is  known  as  a  subpoena  duces  tecum 
will  be  prepared  and  issued  by  the  judge  advocate,  directing 
the  person  to  appear  in  court  and  to  bring  with  him  such 
book,  document  or  paper.  Should  a  person  in  the  military 
service  possess  such  a  book,  document  or  paper,  he  will  be 
directed  by  proper  authority  to  appear  in  court  with  the 
desired  book,  document  or  paper. 

Warrants  of  Attachment— Should  a  civilian  witness  fail 
to  comply  with  the  law  in  regard  to  obeying  a  subpoena  his 
attendance  may  be  brought  about  by  means  of  what  is 
termed  a  Warrant  of  Attachment.  When  it  becomes  neces- 
sary to  issue  a  Warrant  of  Attachment,  the  judge  advocate 
or  summary  court  will  direct  or  deliver  it  for  execution  to 
an  officer  designated  by  the  department  commander  for  the 
purpose. 

As  the  arrest  of  a  person  under  a  Warrant  of  Attachment 
deprives  him  of  his  liberty,  the  authority  for  such  warrant 


Habeas  Corpus  33 

may  be  inquired  into  t>y  a  writ  of  habeas  corpus,  therefore, 
the  officer  executing  the  Warrant  of  Attachment  should  be 
provided  with  the  following  papers: 

(a)  Copy  of  charges  properly   authenticated. 

(b)  Copy  of  the  order  appointing  the  court-martial. 

(c)  The  original  subpoena  with  proof  of  service. 

(d)  The   affidavit   of  the  judge   advocate   or   summary 
court,   that   the   person   is   a   material   witness;    that   he    has 
failed   to  appear;   that  he  has   offered  no   valid   excuse  and 
that  he  has   received  the  original  Warrant  of  Attachment. 

HABEAS  CORPUS 

Habeas  Corpus  and  Warrant  of  Attachment — Should 
the  officer  executing  the  Warrant  of  Attachment  be  served 
with  a  writ  of  habeas  corpus  from  a  United  States  Court 
or  Judge,  for  the  production  of  the  person  attached,  the  writ 
will  be  promptly  obeyed  and  a  return  ,made  stating  the 
reasons  for  his  restraint.  The  officer  upon  whom  the  writ  is 
served  will  report  by  telegraph  the  facts  to  the  Adjutant 
General  of  the  Army  and  the  Department  Commander.  If 
the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  be  issued  by  a  State  Court  or 
Judge,  the  officer  shall  make  a  respectful  return  in  writing, 
informing  the  court  or  judge  that  he  holds  the  person  named 
in  writ  by  authority  of  the  United  States,  pursuant  to  a 
writ  of  attachment  issued  by  the  judge  advocate  of  a  court- 
martial,  and  that  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States 
has  decided  that  State  Courts  and  Judges  have  no  jurisdic- 
tion in  such  cases.  The  officer  will  hold  the  prisoner  in 
custody  under  his  warrant  and  refuse  obedience  to  the 
mandate  of  any  government,  except  that  of  the  United  States. 

Punishment  For  Refusal  to  Qualify  as  Witness — There 
is  no  power  in  a  court-martial  itself  to  compel  a  witness  to 
testify  or  to  punish  him  for  not  testifying.  Procedure  in 
such  case  will  be  (made  by  the  United  States  District  At- 
torney, or  officer  prosecuting  for  the  Government.  Upon 
proper  information,  the  District  Attorney  or  other  prosecu- 
ting officer  for  the  United  States  will  file  an  information 
against  and  prosecute  the  person  so  offending.  The  punish- 
ment shall  be  a  fine  not  to  exceed  $500,  or  imprisonment 
not  to  exceed  six  months,  or  both. 

Tender  of  Fees  Preliminary  to  Prosecution — In  case  of 
a  civilian  witness,  who  has  been  duly  subpoenaed  and  wil- 


34  Contempt 

fully  neglects  or  refuses  to  appear  or  qualify  as  a  witness, 
he  will  be  tendered  or  paid  by  the  nearest  quartermaster  one 
day's  fee  and  the  mileage  to  and  from  the  court,  and  again 
called  upon  to  comply  with  the  requirements  of  the  law. 
Should  he  fail  to  comply  the  second  time,  a  report  of  the 
case  will  be  made  to  the  officer  having  general  court-martial 
jurisdiction  over  the  command,  with  a  view  to  presenting 
the  facts  to  the  Department  of  Justice  for  punitive  action. 

CONTEMPT 

(a)  Authprity  to  Punish — The  court-martial  may  pun- 
ish at  discretion,   subject   to  certain   limitations,   any   person 
who   uses   menacing  words,    signs,   or   gestures,    in   its   pres- 
ence,  or  who   disturbs    its   proceedings   by   riot    or   disorder. 
Power  is  vested  in  general,  special  and  summary  courts  to 
punish    for   contempt,    while   other   punishments    require    the 
approval  of  the  reviewing  authority. 

(b)  Persons  Who  May  Be  Punished  For  Contempt — 
Any  persons,  whether  they  be  in  the  military  service  or  no':, 
may  be  punished  for  contempt  of  a  military  court. 

DEPOSITIONS 

When  Admissible — Depositions  may  be  read  in  evi- 
dence before  a  military  Court  or  Commission,  in  any  case 
not  capital.  Depositions  itnay  be  taken  when  the  witness  re- 
sides beyond  the  limit  of  the  State,  territory  or  district  in 
which  the  court  is  sitting,  or  is  actually  unable  by  reason  of 
age,  sickness,  etc.,  to  appear  before  the  court. 

Before  Whom  Taken — Depositions  may  be  taken  be- 
fore, and  authenticated  by  any  officer,  military  or  civil,  au- 
thorized by  the  laws  of  the  United  States  to  administer 
oaths. 

THE  EVIDENCE 

Requirements  of  the  Oath — The  oath  taken  by  the 
members  of  general  and  special  courts-martial  requires  them 
to  try  and  determine,  according  to  the  evidence,  the  matter 
before  them.  A  summary  court,  although  it  takes  no  oath, 
is  bound  by  the  same  rule.  The  evidence  referred  to,  upon 
which  the  court  must  decide  the  case,  means  all  the  matters 
of  fact  which  the  court  permits  to  be  introduced,  of  which 
it  takes  judicial  notice,  with  a  view  to  proving  or  disproving 


The  Evidence  35 

the  charges.  Any  personal  information  in  the  possession  of 
individual  members,  or  in,  fact  in  the  possession  of  the  court 
itself,  unless  it  has  been  received  in  accordance  with  the  law 
and  accepted  as  evidence,  should  not  be  considered  in  the 
case  whatever. 

Burden  of  Proof — The  burden  of  proof  rests  entirely 
with  the  United  States.  It  is  always  assumed  that  the  accused 
is  innocent  until  the  proof  of  his  guilt  is  established. 

Protection  of  Witnesses — It  is  the  duty  of  the  court  to 
protect  every  witness  from  irrelevant,  insulting  or  improper 
questions,  or  from  harsh  or  insulting  treatment,  and  from 
unnecessary  inquiry  into  his  private  affairs.  The  intimida- 
tion of  witnesses  is  also  forbidden. 

Character  of  Accused — The  question  of  character  can 
only  be  raised  by  the  accused.  Should  the  accused  bring  up 
the  matter  of  his  character  the  judge  advocate  or  court  can 
then  proce"ed  to  investigate  and  bring  out  by  questioning  all 
the  facts  in  the  case;  but  unless  the  accused  has  brought  up 
the  matter  himself,  neither  the  judge  advocate  nor  the  court 
is  permitted  to  question  the  character  of  the  accused.  Where 
the  accused  takes  the  stand  as  a  witness,  however,  his  char- 
acter for  veracity  may  be  attacked  in  the  same  manner  as 
that  of  any  other  witness.  There  is  one  other  exception  to 
the  rule  of  inadmissibility  of  evidence  as  to  character  on 
the  part  of  the  prosecution — where  proof  exists  of  the 
laccused  having  committed  acts  similar  to  that  for  which 
he  is  being  tried,  said  proof  may  be  admitted  to  show 
the  motive  or  the  tendency  toward  the  committing  of  that 
particular  kind  of  crime. 

Interest  or  Bias — The  fact  that  a  person  is  interested 
in  or  hostile  to  the  accused,  does  not  in  any  way  disqualify 
him  as  a  witness.  The  weight  of  his  testimony,  however, 
must  be  decided  by  the  court. 

Accused  as  Witness — The  accused  shall,  at  his  own 
request  but  not  otherwise,  be  a  competent  witness  and  his 
failure  to  make  such  request  shall  not  create  any  presump- 
tion against  him.  The  prosecution  and  the  court  have  a 
right  to  examine  and  cross-examine  the  accused  as  in  the 
case  of  any  other  witness.  He  can,  however,  only  be  cross- 
examined  upon  those  matters  upon  which  he  has  voluntarily 
testified. 


36  The  Evidence 

Dying  Declarations — While  hearsay  evidence  is  not  as 
a  rule  admissable,  there  is  an  exception  in  the  case  of  dying 
declarations,  and  it  is  permitted  that  the  dying  declaration 
of  a  person,  against  whom  violence  has  been  committed,  be 
received  as  evidence  before  a  court.  Owing  to  the  mental 
depreciation  of  persons  giving  a  dying  declaration  much 
caution,  however,  must  be  exercised  in  giving  weight  to 
testimony  involved. 

.  Incriminating  Questions — A  witness  is  privileged  to  re- 
fuse to  respond  to  a  question  the  answer  to  which  may  in- 
criminate him.  If  there  is  a  questi-on,  however,  as  to  whether 
or  not  the  answer  would  incriminate  the  witness,  the  matter 
is  decided  by  the  court  and  the  witness  will  answer  or  be 
excused  from  answering  the  question  according  to  its  de- 
cision. The  right  to  refuse  to  answer  such  questions  is  a 
personal  one  and  may  be  waived  in  the  discretion  of  the 
court. 

Physical  Examination — It  is  not  considered  a  violation 
of  the  rule  permitting  a  witness  to  refuse  to  answer  questions 
when  the  answers  would  incriminate  him,  for  the  court  to 
require  a  physical  examination  of  the  accused,  though  he 
be  a  witness  in  his  own  defence. 

Examination  of  Witnesses — Witnesses  will  be  examined 
apart  from  each  other,  no  witness  being  allowed  to  be  pre- 
sent during  the  examination  of  another  who  is  called  before 
him.  This  rule,  however,  is  not  inflexible. 

Number  of  Witnesses  Required — The  general  rule  is 
that  there  must  be  two  witnesses  to  the  act. 

Order  of  Examination — The  regular  sequence  in  the  ex- 
amination of  witnesses  is  as  follows: 

Witness  for  the  prosecution, 

Direct  examination  by  the  judge  advocate. 

Cross  examination  by  the  counsel  for  the  accused, 

Re-direct  examination  by  the  judge  advocate, 

Re-cross  examination  by  the  counsel   for  the  accused. 

Examination  by  the  court. 

Witness  for  the  defence. 

Direct  examination  by  the  counsel   for  the  accused. 

Cross  examination  by  the  judge  advocate,  and  so  on. 


Statements  and  Arguments  37 

When  a  witness  for  the  defence  is  called  the  judge  advo- 
cate will  ask  the  following  questions  of  a  civilian  witness : 

"State  your  name,  'business,  profession  or  occupation." 

He  will  ask  of  all  witnesses : 

"Do  you  know  the  accused,  if  so,  state  who  he  is?" 

In  the  case  of  a  person  in  the  military  service  as  a  wit- 
ness, the  judge  advocate  will  announce  his  name,  rank  and 
organization. 

Witnesses  will  only  be  cross-examined  on  matters  upon 
which  they  were  questioned  in  the  direct-examination.  Should 
either  side  desire  to  bring  out  any  matter  which  has  not 
been  touched  upon  in  the  direct-examination,  they  may  recall 
the  witness  for  their  particular  side  and  then  by  direct-ex- 
amination bring  out  the  matter  desired. 

Leading  Questions — By  the  term  "leading  question"  is 
meant  a  question  which  suggests  the  answer  the  witness  shall 
make.  In  the  direct  examination  leading  questions  will  not 
be  asked.  They  may  be  asked,  however,  in  the  cross-ex- 
amination. 

Swearing  of  a  Recalled  Witness— The  administering  of 
an  oath  to  a  witness  a  second  time  in  the  same  case  is  not 
necessary.  It  is  customary  to  require  that  the  judge  advo- 
cate caution  and  remind  him  that  he  is  under  oath  for  the 
present  case. 

STATEMENTS  AND  ARGUMENTS 

Statements — After  the  introduction  of  evidence  has 
been  completed,  the  accused  personally,  or  his  counsel,  may 
make  an  unsworn  or  written  statement  as  to  the  case.  It 
may  be  a  brief  summary  of  the  evidence,  or  it  may  be  a 
statement  of  extenuating  circumstances  or  a  complete  oral 
statement  -or  story  of  the  whole  affair.  Such  a  statement 
is  not  subject  to  cross-examination.  While  such  a  state- 
ment has  not  the  weight  of  testimony,  it  should  be  taken  into 
consideration  by  the  court. 

Arguments— After  the  accused  has  made  a  statement, 
or  waived  his  right  to  do  so,  the  judge  advocate  and  the 
accused,  through  his  counsel,  may  present  arguments.  The 
judge  advocate  has  the  right  to  the  opening  and  the  closing 
argument,  but  the  court  may  permit  the  defence  to  answer 
any  new  matter  in  the  closing  argument  of  the  judge  advo- 
cate. 


38  Findings 

FINDINGS 

Voting —  Beginning  with  the  youngest  in  commission,  the 
court  will  vote  upon  the  specifications  of  the  first  charge  in 
order,  and  then  the  first  charge,  followed  by  the  specifica- 
tions in  order  and  then  the  second  charge,  and  so  on.  A 
two-thirds  vote  is  necessary  to  conviction  in  capital  cases. 
A  tie  vote  is  equal  to  a  vote  of  not  guilty  and,  'except  in 
capital  cases,  a  majority  is  necessary  to  convict. 

Reasonable  Doubt — A  member  in  voting  guilty  should 
be  satisfied  •  beyond  any  reasonable  doubt  as  to  the  guilt  of 
the  accused. 

Guilty  of  a  Lesser  Included  Offence— If  the  evidence 
prove  the  commission  of  an  offence  which  is  included  in  that 
with  which  the  accused  is  charged,  the  court  may  except 
words  of  the  specification  and  if  necessary  substitute  others 
instead,  pronounce  the  innocence  of  the  accused  of  the  ex- 
cepted  words  and  the  guilt  of  the  accused  of  the  substituted 
words. 

An  example  of  such  a  finding  would  be  the  case  of  a 
charge  of  desertion.  The  following  might  be  the  finding: 

"Of  the  specification  guilty  except  the  words  'did  desert* 
and  'in  desertion'  substituting  therefor  respectively  the  words 
'absent  himself  without  leave  from'  and  'without  leave,'  of 
the  excepted  words  not  guilty,  of  the  substituted  words  guilty 
and  -of  the  charge,  not  guilty  but  guilty  of  violation  of  the 
Sixty-first  Article  of  War." 

Guilty  Without  Criminality — A  finding  of  "guilty  with- 
out criminality"  is  not  consistent  and  should  not  be  made. 
If  the  accused  is  found  to  have  committed  the  act,  but  with- 
out guilty  intent  or  knowledge  sufficient  to  constitute  the 
offence,  the  court  should,  as  to  the  specification,  find  the 
accused  "not  guilty." 

Recording  of  Finding  or  Sentence — The  judge  advocate 
will  himself  write  in  the  finding  and  sentence  in  every  case. 
The  fact  that  the  sentence,  or  finding,  or  both,  have  been 
made  known  to  a  reporter  or  clerk,  however,  cannot  affect 
the  legality  of  the  proceedings  or  sentence. 

PREVIOUS  CONVICTIONS 

After  the  court  has  come  to  a  finding  of  "guilty"  in  a 
case,  the  court  will  open  and  -the  judge  advocate  will  be 


Previous   Convictions  39 


called  upon  to  state  whether  or  not  there  is  any  evidence  of 
previous  convictions,  and  if  so,  to  read  them  to  the  court 
in  the  presence  of  the  accused.  The  accused  will  be  called 
upon  to  state  any  legal  objection  he  might  have  to  any  of 
the  evidence. 

SENTENCE 

Voting — After  the  rinding  has  been  determined  upon 
and  resulted  in  a  conviction  of  an  offence,  the  court  will  close 
and  decide  upon  a  sentence.  Those  .members  desiring  to  pro- 
pose sentences  write  them  on  slips  of  paper  and  hand  them 
to  the  president.  The  president  then  reads  them  commenc- 
ing with  the  lightest,  and  each  in  turn  is  voted  on,  and  the 
first  sentence  that  received  the  necessary  majority  becomes 
the  sentence  to  the  accused.  Where  the  sentence  is  specific 
and  mandatory  fpr  a  single  charge,  that  sentence  is  adopted. 
If,  in  addition  to  the  finding  pf  "guilty"  on  a  charge  where 
the  specification  is  mandatory,  there  be  other  specifications, 
:he  mandatory  sentence  and  in  addition  such  other  necessary 
punishment  may  be  awarded  as  the  case  may  seem  to  require. 

Sentences  For  Officers — Legal  and  customary  sentences 
for  officers  are  death,  dismissal,  confinement  at  hard  labor, 
loss  of  rank,  suspension  from  rank,  suspension  from  com- 
mand, suspension  from  duty,  fine  of  forfeiture  of  pay,  con- 
finement within  certain  limits,  reprimand  and  admonition. 

Sentences  For  Soldiers — For  soldiers  legal  and  custom- 
ary sentences  are :  Death,  dishonorable  discharge,  confine- 
ment at  hard  labor,  confinement,  forfeiture  of  pay,  detention 
of  pay,  reduction,  reprimand,  deprivation  of  certificate  of 
eligibility  to  promotion. 

Recommendations  to  Clemency — When  a  court-martial, 
or  any  member  thereof,  desires  to  submit  a  recommenda- 
tion to  clemency,  including  a  recommendation  for  the  sus- 
pension of  all  or  part  of  the  sentence,  such  recommendation 
will  be  signed  by  each  member  concurring  therein.  The 
communication  will  contain  a  statement  of  the  reasons  upon 
which  the  recommendation  is  based  and  will  be  appended 
to  the  record  of  the  trial. 

CONFINEMENT  IN  A  PENITENTIARY 

When  Authorized — Under  the  Federal  Penal  Code  any 
offence  is  a  felony  which  is  punishable  under  the  Code  or 


40  Confinement  in  a  Penitentiary 

other  Statute  of  the  United  States  by  confinement  in  excess 
of  one  year.  But  no  person  may  be  confined  in  a  penitentiary 
unless  the  punishment  actually  adjudged  for  an  offence  of 
which  he  has  been  convicted  exceeds  one  year.  A  sentence 
to  confinement  in  a  penitentiary  will  be  awarded  in  those 
cases  only  where  the  act  committed  is  punishable  by  penal 
servitude  in  the  State,  Territory,  or  District  in  which  the  act 
was  committed.  In  awarding  the  punishment  the  place  of 
confinement  will  not  be  mentioned  by  the  court-martial,  but 
will  be  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  reviewing  authority. 

ACTION   ON  PROCEEDINGS 

Sentence  Not  Effective  Until  Approved — No  sentence 
of  court-martial  shall  be  carried  into  execution  until  the 
same  shall  have  been  approved  by  the  officer  appointing  the 
court  or  by  the  officer  commanding  for  the  time  being. 

Effect  of  Approval  and  Disapproval — While  approval 
gives  life  and  operation  to  a  sentence,  disapproval,  on  the 
other  hand,  nullifies  it. 

Power  to  Mitigate  Punishment — The  reviewing  author- 
ity has  the  power  to  reduce  the  sentence  in  quantity  or 
quality,  provided  that  the  general  nature  of  the  punishment 
remain  the  same.  He  has  also  power  to  remit  the  whole 
or  unincluded  part  of  the  sentence.  The  power  of  remission 
and  mitigation  extends  to  all  uncollected  forfeitures  also. 

Commutation  of  Sentences — The  power  to  commute 
sentences  imposed  by  ,military  tribunals,  can  be  exercised  by 
the  President  of  the  United  States  alone. 

Adding  to  Sentences — There  is  no  authority  that  exists 
which  can  in  any  way  increase  a  sentence  given  by  a  court- 
martial.  The  only  way  in  which  this  can  be  effected  is  for 
the  reviewing  authority  to  return  the  proceedings  in  the  case 
to  the  court  for  reconsideration,  with  a  statement  to  the 
effect  that  the  sentence  is  inadequate.  Should  the  court 
adhere  to  its  former  decision,  there  is  no  power  which  can 
increase  it. 

Sentence  in  Excess  of  Legal  Limit — Where  a  sentence 
is  in  excess  of  a  legal  limit,  such  portion  of  it  as  is  legal 
may  be  approved  and  executed,  the  illegal  portion  of  the 
sentence  being  disapproved,  is  without  effect. 


Action  on  Proceeding's  41 


Suspension  of  Sentence — Any  officer  who  has  authority 
to  carry  into  execution  the  sentence  of  death,  or  of  dismissal 
of  an  officer,  may  suspend  the  same  until  the  pleasure  of 
the  President  be  known.  The  authority  competent  to  order 
the  execution  of  a  sentence  adjudged  by  a  court-martial  may, 
if  the  sentence  involve  neither  dismissal  or  dishonorable  dis- 
charge, suspend  the  execution  of  the  sentence  in  so  far  as 
it  relates  to  the  forfeiture  of  pay  or  to  confinement,  and  the 
person  may  be  restored  to  duty  during  his  suspension  of 
confinement.  Within  one  year  after  suspension,  such  order 
of  suspension,  for  sufficient  cause,  may  be  vacated  and  the 
execution  thereof  directed  by  the  military  authority  issuing 
it.  If  the  order  of  suspension  be  not  vacated  within  one 
year,  it  shall  have  the  effect  of  a  remission  of  the  sentence. 
The  authority  competent  to  order  the  execution  of  a  sentence 
including  dishonorable  discharge  may  suspend  such  dishonor- 
able discharge  until  the  soldier  is  released  from  confinement, 
but  the  order  of  suspension  may  be  vacated  at  any  time  and 
the  execution  of  the  dishonorable  discharge  directed  by  the 
officer  suspending  the  discharge.  In  cases  of  suspended  sen- 
tences the  United  States  Disciplinary  Barracks  and  peniten- 
tiaries are  excluded  from  these  rules. 

Date  of  Beginning  of  Sentence — The  order  promulga- 
ting the  proceedings  of  the  court  and  the  action  of  the  re- 
viewing authority  will,  when  practicable,  be  of  the  same 
date.  When  this  is  not  practicable,  the  order  will  give  the 
date  of  the  action  of  the  reviewing  authority,  which  date 
will  be  the  beginning  of  the  sentence  of  confinement.  A 
sentence  of  confinement  is  continuous  until  the  term  expires, 
except  where  the  prisoner  is  absent  without  authority,  or 
on  a  parole,  which  proper  authority  revoked,  or  is  delivered 
over  to  the  civil  authorities.  The  amount  of  time  spent  in 
confinement  prior  to  the  promulgation  of  a  sentence  does 
not  form  a  part  of  a  sentence,  but  due  consideration  should 
be  given  to  such  time  when  the  sentence  is  passed  upon  t>y 
the  reviewing  authority. 

Applications  For  Clemency  will  not  be  made  in  excess 
of  one  in  every  six  months. 

x   COURTS  OF  INQUIRY 

When  and  By  Whom  Ordered — A  court  of  inquiry  to 
examine  into  the  nature  of  any  transaction  of,  or  accusation 
or  imputation  against  any  officer  or  soldier,  may  be  ordered 


42  Courts   of  Inquiry 

by  the  President  or  by  any  commanding  officer,  but  a  court 
of  inquiry  shall  not  be  ordered  by  any  commanding  officer 
except  upon  the  request  of  the  officer  or  soldier  whose  con- 
duct is  to  be  inquired  into. 

Neither  the  President  nor  a  commanding  officer  is  obliged 
to  order  a  court  of  inquiry  on  demand  of  an  officer  or 
soldier.  He  will  use  his  discretion  in  the  matter  and  act 
according  to  the  necessities  of  the  case. 

MEMORANDA  FOR  TRIAL  JUDGE 
ADVOCATES 

1.  UPON  RECEIPT  BY  AN  OFFICER  OF  AN 
ORDER  APPOINTING  HIM  JUDGE  ADVOCATE 
OF  A  COURT-MARTIAL 

(a)  Examine  the  order  carefully  and  take  appropriate 
acti-on  to  cause  the  correction  of  any  substantial  irregularity 
therein. 

(b)  Examine  and  study  such   portions   of  the   Manual 
for  Courts-Martial,  Digest  of  Opinions  of  the  Judge  Advo- 
cates  General,   Army   Regulations,   and  War   Department   or 
other  orders  affecting  courts-martial  as  may  appear  desirable. 
He   should,   in    this   connection,   give   particular  attention    to 
the    duties    of    trial    judge    advocates,    to    the    procedure    of 
courts-imartial,  and  to  the  matter  of  evidence. 

2.     UPON  RECEIPT  OF  CHARGES  IN  A  CASE 

(a)  Prepare    an   envelope    to    contain    the    papers    per- 
taining thereto. 

(b)  Examine    the    charges    and    all    papers     received    to 
see  that  none  appear  to  be  missing,  that  the  charges  appear 
to  be  correctly  drawn,  that  the  evidence  of  previous  convic- 
tions is  complete  and  correct,  especially  as  to  dates,  authenti- 
cation, proper  signatures,   etc. 

(c)  Make  authorized  necessary  changes  in  charges  and 
take  proper  action,  in  connection  with  defects,  if  any,  found 
in  evidence  of  previous  convictions. 

(d)  Report   to    the    appointing   authority   necessary    or 
desirable  changes  which  the  judge  advocate  is  not  authorized 
to  make. 


Memoranda  43 

(e)  Furnish  the  accused,  if  he  so  desires,  a  copy  of  the 
charges ;  and,  if  he  desires  to  state,  ascertain  from  him  how 
he  intends  to  plead. 

(f)  Ascertain  whether  accused  desires   counsel;  and  if 
so,  ascertain  whether  he  wishes  a  particular  person ;  and  if 
so,  whom. 

(g)  Arrange  for  counsel,  if  desired  to  do  so. 

(h)  Prepare  case  for  trial,  investigating  it  thoroughly, 
and  determining  upon  plan  of  prosecution. 

(i)  Arrange  with  president  date  and  time  of  meeting 
of  court. 

(j)  Arrange  for  court-martial  room,  see  that  it  is  in 
order,  provided  with  necessary  chairs,  tables,  stationery,  and 
room  to  be  heated,  if  necessary. 

(k)  Notify  all  members  of  date  and  time  of  meeting 
and  arrange  for  presence  of  other  necessary  persons,  includ- 
ing the  accused  and  his  counsel,  reporter,  interpreter,  if  re- 
quired, and  witnesses. 

(1)  Arrange  to  have  at  trial  such  books,  etc.,  as  may 
be  required.  The  following  are  frequently  found  necessary 
or  useful : 

Manual  for   Courts-Martial. 

Digest  of   Opinions,  Judge  Advocates   General. 

Standard  Text  on  Military  Law. 

Ordnance  Price  List. 

Clothing  Price  List. 

(m)  Determine  maximum  punishment,  if  any,  impos- 
able  upon  conviction  of  each  of  the  several  offences  charged, 
and  note  same  on  slip  for  use  of  court  in  the  event  of  a 
conviction. 

3.  UPON  THE  ASSEMBLING  OF  THE  COURT 

(a)  Note  officers  present  and  absent. 

(b)  When   court   appears   to  be   ready  to   proceed,   an- 
nounce   the    readiness    of    the    prosecution    to    proceed    with 

trial  of  ,  who  desires   to  introduce as  counsel, 

or   does  not   desire  to  introduce  counsel. 

(c)  Swear    reporter,    if    any. 

(d)  If  a   general   court-martial,   ask   accused   if  he   de- 
sires a  copy  of  the  record  of  his  trial.     If  he  does  not,  do 


44  Memoranda 

not  have  copy  made;    if   he  wishes   copy,   direct   reporter  to 
prepare  one. 

(e)  Read   aloud   to    accused   the    order   appointing   the 
court  and  each  modifying  order. 

(f)  Ask   accused   if  he   objects    to  being   tried   by   any 
member  present  named  in  the  order  or  orders. 

(g)  After  action  on   challenge,   if  any  has   been   made, 
again   ask  the   accused   whether  he   objects  as   above.     Con- 
tinue this  until  accused  has  no  further  objections. 

(h)     Swear  members  of  court. 

(i)     Be  sworn  by  president. 

(j)  Read  charges  and  specifications  aloud  slowly  to 
the  accused,  and,  having  done  so,  ask  him  how  he  pleads  to 
the  first  specification,  first  charge — if  necessary  rereading  to 
him  the  specification;  then  how  he  pleads  to  the  second 
specification,  first  charge,  etc.;  then  to  the  first  charge,  etc. 

(k)  If  there  be  a  plea  of  guilty,  the  president  makes 
to  accused  the  required  explanations  and  asks  him  the  re- 
quired questions. 

(1)  Read  to  court  from  chapter  on  punitive  articles 
the  gist  of  each  of  the  several  offences  charged. 

(m)  Introduce  and  swear  witnesses  for  the  prosecu- 
tion. In  some  cases  it  may  be  desirable  to  acquaint  the  court 
with  the  particular  specification  with  which  the  testimony 
of  a  particular  witness  is  connected. 

(n)  In  all  cases  attempt  to  establish  by  evidence  each 
of  the  several  specifications,  except  such  elements  as  may  be 
the  subjects  of  judicial  notice  or  as  are  admitted. 

(o)  Examine  each  witness,  having  careful  regard  for 
the  rules  of  evidence. 

(p)     Offer  opportunity  to  cross-examine. 

(q)     Re-examine,   if  desirable. 

(r)     Ask  court  if  there  are  any  questions  by  the  court. 

(s)  If  any  witness  is  recalled,  remind  him  that  he  is 
still  under  oath. 

(t)  When  the  prosecution  has  nothing  further  to  offer 
for  the  time,  announce  that  the  prosecution  rests. 

(u)  Swear  witnesses  for  defence,  in  succession,  and 
cross-examine  so  far  as  desirable. 


Memoranda  45 

(v)  After  defence  rests,  swear  and  examine  witnesses, 
if  any,  in  rebuttal  for  prosecution. 

(w)  If  the  accused  neither  testifies  nor  makes  a  state- 
ment, the  president  makes  to  him  the  required  explanation 
and  asks  him  the  required  questions. 

(x)     Offer  accused  opportunity  to  make  a  statement. 
(y)     Make  closing  statement,  if  any. 


4.    ADJOURNMENT  DURING  TRIAL 

(a)  Note  time  of  adjournment. 

(b)  Arrange,  if  practicable,  to  have  completed  record 
of  proceedings  to  date  ready  before  next  assembling  of  court. 

(c)  Subscribe  the  record  of  proceedings  for  the  day. 


5.    FINDINGS 

(a)  After    both    prosecution    and    defence    have    con- 
cluded, the  court  closes  for  findings,   and  in  the  case  of   a 
person  not  a  soldier  to  award  sentence  upon  conviction. 

(b)  Upon  conviction  of  a  soldier,  the  court  opens  for 
the   purpose    of    receiving   evidence   of    previous,   convictions, 
if  there  be  any. 

(1)  Read    aloud    duly    authenticated    evidence    of    pre- 
vious   convictions    referred   to   the    court    by   the    appointing 
authority. 

(2)  Invite   attention   of  court  to  any  apparent   irregu- 
larity in  the  evidence  of  previous  convictions. 

(3)  Ask    the    accused    whether    the    evidence    of    the 
several  previous  convictions  and  the  statement  of  service  as 
shown  on  the  charge  sheet  are  correct. 

(4)  Invite  the  attention   of  the  court  to  any  apparent 
irregularity  in  the  findings. 

6.     SENTENCE 

(a)  The  court  will  then   close   to  determine  upon  and 
award  the  sentence. 

(b)  After    awarding    sentence    the    court    notifies    the 
judge  advocate  of  the  same. 

(c)  Invite  the  attention  of  the  court  to  any  apparent 
irregularity  in  the  sentence. 


46  Memoranda 

7.    ADJOURNMENT  AT  CLOSE  OF  TRIAL. 

(a)  After  sentence  has  been  awarded  the  court  either 
proceeds  to  other  business  or  adjourns. 

(b)  Note   time   of  proceeding   to   other  business   or  of 
adjournment. 

8.    AFTER  TRIAL 

(a)  Complete   vouchers   for   civilian   witnesses   and   de- 
liver same,  if  practicable,  before  the  witness  leaves. 

(b)  Take  proper  measures  to  insure  the  security  of  the 
findings  and  sentence,  if  recorded,  and  that  they  are  not  dis- 
closed to  any  but  the  proper  authority. 

(c)  When   record  is   received  back  from  reporter: 

(1)  Examine  carefully  to  see  that  it  is  in  proper  form, 
c.omplete,  and  correct  as  to  both  form  and  substance. 

(2)  Make  proper  notation   on  index  sheet  as  to   copy 
of  record. 

(3)  See    that    copies    of    evidence    of   previous    convic- 
tions  are   correct,   certify  same,   and   return   originals  to   or- 
ganization. 

(4)  If  not  so  attached,  attach  index  sheet  and  all   ex- 
hibits. 

(5)  See  that  record  is  securely  bound. 

(d)  Enter  findings  and  sentence. 

(e)  If    findings  •  and     sentence     are     typewritten,     add 
proper  certificate. 

(f)  Authenticate  record. 

(g)  Have  president  authenticate  record. 

(h)  Certify  original  voucher  and  send  it  to  reporter 
or  to  a  near  disbursing  quartermaster,  and  inclose  copy  with 
record. 

(i)  Verify  completeness  and  correctness  of  record  by 
seeing  that,  so  far  as  necessary  in  the  particular  case,  each 
requirement  stated  in  Chapter  XV,  Section  I,  paragraph 
357  (b)  has  been  complied  with. 

(j)  Indorse  and  forward  charges,  accompanied  by 
record  of  trial  and  all  other  papers  received  with  the  case, 
to  the  appointing  authority. 


Memoranda  47 

9.    WEEKLY  REPORT 

Each  Saturday  report  through  the  president  of  the  court 
and  the  commanding  officer,  all  charges  which  have  not  been 
returned  to  the  appointing  authority,  showing  date  of  receipt 
of  each  and  reasons  for  delay  in  trial. 

10.    RECORD  WHICH  MAY  BE  KEPT 

It  is  suggested  that  when  deemed  desirable  at  least  the 
following  record  be  kept  by  the  trial  judge  advocate  in  each 
case.  This  record  may  be  conveniently  kept  on  an  envelope 
to  be  used  as  a  container  for  the  charges  and  various  papers : 

Date  of  receipt  by  him  of  charges  or  other  papers. 

Date  of  preliminary  consultation  by  him  with  the  accused. 

How  accused  intends  to  plead,  if  stated  by  him. 

Counsel:  Desired?  If  so,  name.  If  so,  date  on  which 
commanding  officer  so  informed. 

Date  on  which  judge  advocate  informed  of  appointment  of 
counsel. 

Result  of  examination  in  preparing  for  trial,  and  dates  and 
•other  necessary  facts  pertaining  to  each  other  incident  con- 
nected with  the  case,  such  as  mailing  interrogatories,  sub- 
poenaing witnesses,  etc. 

Date  of  trial. 

Date  and  hour  record  received  back  from  reporter. 

Date  and  hour  record  forwarded  to  appointing  authority. 

Date  of  return  to  commanding  officer  of  evidence  of  pre- 
vious convictions,  if  any,  to  be  so  returned. 

The  Statute  of  Limitations — (1)  Definition — Statutes 
of  limitation  in  criminal  law  are  statutes  of  which  the  ac- 
cused may  take  advantage  and  deprive  the  Government  of 
the  power  to  try  and  punish  him,  after  the  lapse  of  a  specific 
period  since  the  offence  was  co,mmitted.  They  are  enacted 
to  secure  the  prompt  punishment  of  criminal  offences  and 
with  a  view  to  obtain  the  attendance  of  the  witnesses  at  the 
trial  while  the  recollection  of  the  event  is  still  fresh  in  their 
minds.  In  court-martial  prosecutions  are  limited  both  as  to 
time  and  as  to  number.  (A.  W.  39,  40.)  * 

(2)  Limitations  as  to  time. — (a)  In  the  following 
cases  there  is  no  limitation  as  to  time  upon  trial  by  court- 
martial  (A.  W.  39)  viz : 

*  Time,  Statute  of  Limitations.  Number,  Constitution:  "No  person  will  be  tried 
twice  for  same  offence."  This  does  not  prevent  the  trial  of  a  soldier  by  the  military  authorities 
after  trial  by  civil  courts  for  the  same  act,  which  sometimes  constitutes  two  offences,  i.  e.  dis- 
gracing: the  uniform,  a  purely  military  offence,  and  breach  of  peace,  a  civil  offence. 


48  Memoranda 

(1)  Desertion   committed  in   time   of  war; 

(2)  Mutiny;   or 

(3)  Murder. 

(b)  The    period   of   limitation    upon    trial    and   punish- 
ment by  court-martial  shall   be  three    (3)   years  in  the   fol- 
lowing cases  (A.  W.  39)  viz. : 

(1)  Desertion  in  time  of  peace; 

(2)  Any  crime  or  offence  punishable  under  A.  W.  93; 
or 

(3)  Any  crime  or  offence  punishable  under  A.  W.  94. 

(c)  No  person  subject  to  military  law  shall  be  liable 
to  be  tried  or  punished  by  a  court-martial  for  any  crime  or 
offence  not  enumerated  in  paragraph   (a)  -or  paragraph   (b), 
supra,  committed  .more  than  two    (2)    years   before  the  ar- 
raignment of  such  person  (A.  W.  39). 

(d)  Computation    of    the    period    of    limitation. — The 
point  at  and  from  which  the  period  of  limitation  is  to  begin 
to  run  is  the,  date  of  the  commission  of  the  offence.     The 
point  at  which  the  period  of  limitation  is  to  terminate  and 
from  which  said  period  is  to  be  reckoned  back  is  the  date 
or  arraignment  of  the  accused.     There  must  be  excluded  in 
computing  this  period : 

(1)  The   period   of   any   absence   of  the  accused   from 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  United  States;  and 

(2)  Any  period  during  which  by  reason  of  some  mani- 
fest impediment  the  accused   shall   not  have  been  amenable 
to  military  justice. 

Notes.  "Manifest  impediment",  means  only  such  im- 
pediments as  to  operate  to  prevent  the  court-martial  from 
exercising  its  jurisdiction,  and  includes  such  conditions  as 
being  held  as  a  prisoner  of  war  in  the  hands  of  the  enemy, 
or  being  imprisoned  under  the  sentence  of  a  civil  court 
upon  conviction  of  crime  (In  re  Davison,  4  Fed.  Rep.,  510)  ; 
but  any  concealment  of  the  evidence  of  their  guilt  or  other 
like  fraud  on  their  part  while  they  remain  within  the  juris- 
diction of  the  United  States,  by  which  the  prosecution  is 
delayed  until  the  time  the  bar  has  run,  did  not  deprive  them 
of  the  benefit  of  the  statute.  (14  Op.  Atty.  Gen.  268.) 

The  thirty-ninth  article  of  war  did  not  have  the  effect  to 
authorize  trial  or  punishment  for  any  crime  or  offence 
barred  by  the  provisions  of  law  existing  at  the  date  of  its 
exactment,  August  29,  1916. 


CHAPTER  II. 

COMPANY  ADMINISTRATION 

Discipline — All  military  persons  are  required  to  obey 
promptly  their  superiors  in  the  fulfillment  of  all  lawful 
orders.  Orders  which  are  manifestly  illegal  have  no  force. 
Between  the  easily  recognized  extremes  of  legal  and  illegal 
orders,  where  there  is  doubt  as  to  legality  or  propriety,  the 
order  should  be  obeyed.  In  serious  cases  and  cases  involv- 
ing the  expenditure  of  public  funds,  such  doubtful  orders 
should  be  demanded  to  be  given  in  writing. 

Military  Courtesy — Superiors  are  forbidden  to  injure 
those  under  them  or  to  abuse  them  in  any  way.  Care  should 
always  be  taken  not  to  be  offensive  in  tone,  speech  or  man- 
ner. Orders  should  always  be  made  impersonal  and  those 
to  whom  they  are  given  should  be  coached  to  understand — 
especially  those  new  in  the  service — that  personal  feeling 
plays  no  part  in  the  issue  of  orders. 

It  is  important  always  to  distinguish  between  just  com- 
ptoints  and  useless  complaints.  Organizations  should  be  kept 
up  through  the  pride  of  the  men  in  their  organization,  which 
is  called  "esprit  de  corps".  Respect  for  and  pride  in  an 
organization  can  only  be  maintained  where  the  organization 
possesses  merit.  Military  -organizations  without  discipline 
possesses  nothing  in  which  to  take  pride.  Whether  discipline 
be  maintained  by  the  Company  Commander  by  firm  treat- 
ment or  whether  he  maintains  it  by  gaining  the  zealous  co- 
operation and  self-discipline  on  the  part  of  his  men  matters 
little — results  are  what  count. 

Courtesy  is  indispensable  between  military  persons,  and 
must  not  be  confined  to  official  business,  but  should  be  ex- 
tended at  all  times  and  in  all  places. 

RANK 

Rank  is  that  character  or  quality  conferred  upon  military 
persons  which  marks  their  station  and  confers  eligibility  to 
command.  It  is  given  usually  by  virtue  of  office  in  an  arm, 
corps  or  department,  but  may  be  conferred  without  refer- 

49 


50  Enlistments 

ence  to  arm  or  branch  of  the  service.  For  example :  Retired 
or  brevet  officers.  These  have  rank,  but  not  command. 
Brevet  is  merely  an  honor,  carrying  no  increase  of  pay  and 
is  usually  conferred  for  some  distinguished  service. 

ENLISTMENTS 

Only  those  specially  designated  pursuant  to  authority  of 
the  War  Department  can  bind  the  Government  to  the  con- 
tract of  enlistment  and  if  the  government  is  not  bound  the 
individual  cannot  be  held.  Recruiting  Officers  are  divided 
(a)  for  regiments,  detachments  or  posts ;  designated  by  the 
War  Department  to  recruit  for  their  organizations ;  (b)  By 
special  authority  of  the  War  Department,  officers  of  such 
organizations  may  be  detached  to  recruit  for  these  organiza- 
tions; (c)  Officers  constituting  the  Recruiting  Service,  who 
recruit  without  reference  to  any  particular  post  or  organi- 
zation. 

COMMAND 

Command  is  exercised  by  virtue  of  office,  and  special  as- 
signment to  duty  of  officers  holding  rank  who  are  eligible  by 
law  to  command. 

The  designation  "company"  applies  to  troops  of  cavalry, 
batteries  of  field  artillery,  and  to  companies  and  bands  of 
all  arms  and  corps.  Any  officer  properly  placed  in  command 
of  any  such  unit  is  called  the  "company  commander." 

An  officer-  relieved  from  any  office  will  turn  over  to  his 
successor  all  orders,  public  property,  and  funds  pertaining 
to  his  command  or  duty. 

FURLOUGHS 

Furlough  on  the  prescribed  form  may  be  granted  for 
periods  of  three  months  by  post  commanders,  brigade  and 
district  commanders  of  territorial  departments,  chiefs  of  War 
Department  bureaus,  to  enlisted  men  of  their  respective  de- 
partments or  corps.  Furloughs  for  one  (month  may  be 
granted  by  mine  planters,  or  by  regimental  commanders  if 
the  companies  to  which  the  men  belong  are  under  their  con- 
trol. Soldiers  on  furlough  will  not  take  with  them  arms  or 
accoutrements,  will  not  leave  the  country,  and  will  not  be 
paid  while  actually  on  furlough  except  on  special  authority 
from  the  War  Department.  Enlisted  men  reporting  at  their 


Furloughs  51 

proper  stations  before  the  expiration  of  their  furlough  will 
receive  in  addition  to  their  pay  30  cents  per  diem  allowance 
for  rations  for  the  period  of  the  furlough. 

Passes  are  given  at  the  discretion  of  company  and  post 
commanders  to  the  men  directly  under  the,m.  No  commuta- 
tion -of  ration  allowance  is  given  to  men  on  pass. 

Transfer  of  Enlisted  Men — Transfer  of  enlisted  men 
will  be  made  as  follows : 

1.  When   not   involving   change   of  station: 

(a)  Within  a  regiment,  by  the  regimental  commander, 

(b)  Within  detached  battalion,  when  more  than  fifteen 
days  are  required   for  exchange   of  correspondence,  by  bat- 
talion   commander. 

(c)  Within    a    coast    defence    command,   by    the    coast 
defence  commander. 

2.  When  change  of  station,  is  involved: 

As  in  the  first  instance  but  with  the  approval  of  authority 
competent  to  direct  the  travel. 

3.  Between  organizations  of  the  line  of  the  Army: 

(a)  Within  any  post,  by  the  post  commander. 

(b)  Within     any     department,     by     department     com- 
mander. 

(c)  Within  tactical  division,  by  division  commander. 
Deserters — When  a  soldier  deserts,  his  immediate  com- 
manding officer   will : 

1.  Ascertain  whether  public  property  has  been  lost  in 
consequence ;  if  so,  call  a  survey. 

2.  Charge    the    value   of   such   articles    against   the   de- 
serter. 

3.  Turn  over  abandoned  clothing  to  the  quartermaster, 
with  certificate  showing  its  condition  and  deserter's  name. 

4.  Turn  over  personal  property  to  a  council  of  admin- 
istration for  sale.     The  proceeds  of  the  sale  will  be  .turned 
over  to  the  company  commander,  who  will  deposit  them  with 
a  quartermaster,   and   in  no   case  give   the,m  to    relatives   or 
other   claimants. 

Discharges — An    enlisted    man    will    not    be    discharged 
before   the   expiration  of   his  term  of  service   except : 
1.     By  order  of  the  President  or  Secretary  of  War. 


62  Furloughs 

2.  By   sentence  of  a  general   court-martial  or  military 
commission. 

3.  By   direction    of   commander   of   department  or    mo- 
bilized   division,    by    purchase ;    under    rules    governing    such 
discharge;    (These  rules  are  published  from  time  to  time  by 
the  War  Department),  on  account  of  disability;   on  account 
of  imprisonment  under  sentence  of  civil  court. 

4.  Through  order  of  a  United  States  court  on  writ  of 
habeas    corpus. 

Three  blank  forms  for  the  discharge  of  soldiers  are  used 
as  follows : 

1.  Honorable  discharge  for 

(a)  Expiration    of  enlistment  where    service  has   been 
honest  and   faithful. 

(b)  Certificate    of    disability,    where    service    has    been 
honest  and   faithful. 

(c)  Prior    to    expiration    of    enlistment,    for    the    con- 
venience of  the  Government,  when  the  soldier's  conduct  has 
been  honest  and  faithful. 

2.  Dishonorable   discharge,    by    sentence   of  court-mar- 
tial   or    military    commission. 

3.  Discharge,  except  as   specified  under  1   and  2. 

If  a  company  commander  believes  a  soldier's  re-enlistment 
should  not  be  recommended,  he  should  notify  the  soldier  at 
least  thirty  days  prior  to  his  discharge,  and  the  commanding 
officer  will  cause  a  board  of  officers  to  be  convened  to  make 
final  decision  in  the  case. 

Deceased  Soldiers — Upon  the  death  of  a  soldier,  his  im- 
mediate company  commander  will : 

1.  Secure  his  effects   and  make  inventory  of  them. 

2.  Notify  nearest  relative. 

3.  Send    duplicates    of   the    inventory   with    final   state- 
ment and  medical  report  to  the  Adjutant  General. 

4.  Deliver   effects    to   legal    representatives   of  the   de- 
ceased. 

5.  If   effects   are   not   claimed   they  will   be   sold  by   a 
council    of    administration    appointed    by    the     commanding 
officer.      The   proceeds   of   the    sale   will   be  turned    over   to 
the   quartermaster  with   statement  as  to  what  they  are. 


'furloughs  53 

Extra  and  Special  Duty — Enlisted  men  performing 
duties  which  remove  them  from  the  duty  roster  will  be 
reported  on  "extra  duty"  if  receiving  extra  pay  therefor  from 
the  United  States,  otherwise  on  "special  duty." 

Private  work  done  for  officers  or  in  post  exchange  is  not 
termed,  or  reported,  as  extra  duty  even  though  the  men  re- 
ceive pay  from  the  party  employing  them. 

Non-commissioned  officers  cannot  be  detailed  without  au- 
thority from  the  Department  Commander. 

Detached  Service — When  a  person  in  miltiary  service  is 
placed  on  duty  which  separates  him  from  his  proper  organ- 
ization he  is  said  to  be  upon  detached  service. 

Medals  of  Honor  and  Certificates  of  Merit — Medals  of 
Honor  are  awarded  by  Congress  to  officers  and  enlisted  men 
for  distinguished  acts  of  gallantry  in  action,  beyond  that 
which  would  be  required  in  line  of  duty  and  involving  risk 
of  life.  Recommendation  must  be  (made  within  one  year 
and  should  be  accompanied  by  written  testimony  of  at  least 
two  witnesses. 

Certificates  of  Merit  are  granted  by  the  President  to  en- 
listed men  upon  recommendation  of  commanding  officer  of 
regiment  or  corps  to  which  such  man  belongs.  This  recom- 
mendation must  be  made  within  one  year  and  for  distin- 
guished service  seen  preferably  by  the  immediate  commander. 
The  man  must  be  in  the  military  service  when  the  recom- 
mendation is  made. 

Two  dollars  per  month  is  allowed  to  men  holding  certifi- 
cates of  Merit  throughout  their  service,  both  active  and 
retired. 

A  Certificate  of  Merit  is   forfeited  by  desertion. 

Flags,  Colors,  and  Standards— The  "flag"  of  the  United 
States  is  used  on  masts  and  flag  poles. 

"Standards"  are  carried  by  mounted  troops.  "Colors"  are 
carried  by  all  other  branches  of  the  service. 

The  difference  between  standards  and  colors  is  in  size  only. 

Duties  of  the  Company  Commander— The  commanding 
officer  of  a  company  is  responsible  for  its  proper  instruction 
and  administration. 


54  Company  Records 

COMPANY  RECORDS 

The  following  reports  and  records  are  made :  correspond- 
ence file  and  index ;  sick  report ;  morning  report ;  property 
cards;  company  council  'book;  muster  rolls;  pay  roils;  de- 
scriptive lists;  clothing  issue  slips  and  records  of  sizes; 
company  fund  book;  duty  roster;  target  reports;  field  firing 
reports ;  monthly  returns ;  delinquency  book ;  property  re- 
turns ;  memorandum  receipts ;  statement  of  clothing  issued ; 
rations  returns ;  efficiency  reports. 

Duties  of  Squad  Leaders — Squad  leaders  are  responsi- 
ble for :  bunks  and  bedding  being  overhauled ;  floors,  benches, 
tables  scoured;  arms  and  accoutrements  cleaned;  leather 
articles  polished;  cleanliness  of  men;  everything  in  order 
when  going  on  duty;  proper  dress  of  men  when  leaving 
post  on  passes;  preparation  of  squads  for  inspection. 

The  Company  Council  of  Administration — The  council 
of  administration  consists  of  all  officers  present  for  duty 
with  the  company.  The  junior  officer  present  will  record  its 
proceedings. 

Company  Funds — The  company  fund  consists  of  gross 
amounts  from  all  sources,  it  is  received  by  the  company 
commander,  and  with  the  concurrence  of  the  company  coun- 
cil is  disbursed  by  hi,m  solely  for  the  benefit  of  the  company. 

Route  Maps  and  Journals  of  March — Every  command- 
ing officer  of  troops  on  the  march  will  require  a  suitable 
officer,  preferably  a  mounted  officer,  to  make  a  complete 
sketch  of  the  route  of  march  and  to  make  a  report  of  the 
march  giving  all  necessary  data  concerning  the  country 
through  which  the  march  was  made. 

Property  Accountability  and  Responsibility — A  com- 
pany commander  is  responsible  for  public  property  pertain- 
ing to  his  company  and  cannot  transfer  such  responsibility 
to  enlisted  men.  Responsibility  without  accountability  de- 
volves when  the  officer  is  not  required  to  make  returns 
therefor. 

An  accountable  officer  is  relieved  from  responsibility  for 
property  for  which  he  holds  a  proper  memorandum  receipt. 
A  responsible  officer  is  not  relieved  from  responsibility  for 
property  for  which  he  has  given  a  memorandum  receipt, 
until  he  has  returned  the  property  to  the  accountable  officer 
or  has  secured  receipt  from  his  successor. 


Company  Records  55 

Serviceable  property  is   classified  as   follows: 

1.  That  which  is  worn  out  by  fair  wear  and  tear  and 
is  of  no  salable  value. 

2.  That  which  is  worn  out  by  fair  wear  and  tear  and 
is  of  salable  value. 

3.  That  rendered  unserviceable  from  causes  other  than 
fair  wear  and  tear. 

Property  of  the  first  class  may  be  submitted  to  a  survey- 
ing officer  or  an  inspector,  and  the  following  classes  may  be 
destroyed:  (1)  clothing  infected  with  contagious  disease, 

(2)  deteriorated  stores  which  endanger  health  or  other  stores, 

(3)  other  property  adjudged  unsalable  by  officer  as  above. 
His  decision  is  final  as  to  whether  property  has  salable  value. 

A  surveying  officer  is  appointed  by  the  regimental  or  post 
commander  to  inspect  and  report  upon  the  circumstances  of 
the  destruction  or  loss  of  property. 

Under  this  authority  ordnance  stores  will  be  limited  to 
utterly  worthless  articles  constituting  soldiers*  personal  equip- 
ment (not  arms),  horse  equipment,  and  target  ,materials  and 
supplies. 

When  in  the  application  of  this  paragraph  under  (3),  to 
ordnance  stores,  the  value  of  the  stores  to  be  destroyed  on 
any  survey  shall  bring  the  total  for  the  quarter  for  any 
organization  in  excess  of  the  amounts  hereinafter  given,  the 
approval  of  the  next  higher  administrative  commander  shall 
first  be  obtained. 

Cavalry  troops  and  engineer  and  signal  corps  companies, 
$300.00. 

Batteries  of  Field  Artillery,  $500.00. 

Infantry  and  coast  artillery  companies  and  all  other  cases, 
$150.00. 

When  the  disposition  of  unserviceable  articles  is  covered 
by  specific  instructions  of  any  of  the  supply  departments, 
they  will  be  disposed  of  in  accordance  with  such  instructions 
in  lieu  of  being  destroyed  under  the  provisions  of  this  para- 
graph, but  requests  for  specific  instructions  will  not  be  sub- 
mitted in  individual  cases  instead  of  placing  the  property 
before  a  survey  officer  or  inspector. 

Before  ordering  the  destruction  of  property  or  stores  under 
the  provisions  of  this  paragraph  the  commanding  officer  will 
personally  inspect  the  same  and  will  be  held  responsible  that 


56  Issue  of  Rations 

the  conditions  justify  the  action.  A  certificate  of  the  wit- 
nessing officer  that  the  property  has  been  destroyed  as  author- 
ized will  be  appended  to  the  report. 

Property  of  the  second  class  will  be  submitted  to  an  in- 
spector without  prior  action  of  a  survey  officer. 

Property  of  the  third  class  will  be  submitted  to  a  survey- 
ing officer  except  in  the  case  of  public  animals  and,  unless 
destroyed,  will  subsequently  be  submitted  to  the  action  of 
an  inspector.  In  such  cases  inventory  and  inspection  reports 
will  accompany  the  report  of  survey. 

Damage  to  and  loss  of  property  is  classified  as   follows : 

1.  Unavoidable  causes  in  ordinary  service,  or  incident  to 
active  campaign. 

2.  Avoidable  causes  due  to  carelessness,   willfulness,   and 
neglect. 

Indebtedness  to  Post  Exhange — The  indebtedness  of  a 
soldier  to  the  post  exchange  is  noted  on  pay  roll  for  next 
succeeding  month,  and  deducted  from  his  pay  by  the  quarter- 
master and  turned  over  to  the  post  exchange  officer,  who 
receipts  therefor  to  the  quartermaster  and  the  soldier. 

ISSUE  OF  RATIONS 

Rations,  Issue  of — Rations  are  drawn  on  forms  known 
as  Ration  Returns  (form  No.  23  Q.  M.  C).  The  Ration 
Return  is  made  out,  giving  the  number  of  rations  required 
for  the  number  of  men  in  the  Company  for  a  certain  period 
(multiply  number  of  ,men  present  by  the  number  of  days  in 
the  period).  To  this,  number  is  added  the  net  corrections, 
which  is  the  difference  between  the  additions  and  subtrac- 
tions shown  on  the  morning  report  for  the  previous  period. 
The  sum  of  the  first  number  and  the  number  of  net  correc- 
tions is  the  number  of  rations  to  which  the  Company  is 
entitled.  Note:  Should  the  deductions  be  in  excess  of  the 
additions,  the  net  corrections  would  be  minus  and  must  be 
subtracted  from  the  first  number.  Should  the  additions  ex- 
ceed the  deductions,  the  net  corrections  should  be  added. 

The  forms  are  made  out  in  duplicate,  blue  and  white.  The 
white  sheet  is  submitted  with  the  morning  report  on  the  first 
of  each  month  in  garrison  or  on  the  first  day  of  the  specified 
period  when  in  the  field. 


Issue  of  Rations  57 

The  Company  commander  signs  and  the  Commanding 
Officer  approves  the  ration  return  before  rations  are  issued. 
It  is  then  sent  to  the  Quartermaster.  The  ration  return  in- 
forms the  Quartermaster  as  to  the  money  credit  due  the 
Company.  Against  this  credit  the  Company  draws  such 
articles  of  subsistence  as  are  considered  necessary.  Any 
overdraft  made  is  paid  for  in  cash  by  the  Company  com- 
mander from  the  Company  funds  at  the  end  of  the  month. 
Undrawn  balance  due  the  Company  is  paid  in  cash  to  the 
Company  commander  and  becomes  a  part  of  the  Cofnpany 
funds.  This  money  is  available  for  the  mess  only. 

In  the  lower  part  of  the  Ration  Return  are  spaces  to  fill 
in  amount  of  extra  issues,  which  are  due  the  Company,  as 
allowed  by  the  Army  Regulations. 

Rations — A  Description — A  ration  is  the  allowance  for 
the  subsistence  of  one  person  .for  one  day. 

The  kinds  of  rations  are :  garrison,  haversack,  travel, 
Filipino,  and  emergency. 

Garrison  rations  are  issued  wherever  practicable. 

Havefsack  rations  are  issued  beyond  the  advance  depots 
in  campaign. 

Travel  rations  are  issued  to  troops  otherwise  than  by 
marching,  and  separated  from  cooking  facilities. 

Filipino  rations  are   for  Filipino  scouts   only. 

Emergency  rations  are  for  troops  on  active  campaign  in 
emergency  only,  or  in  the  field  for  instruction. 

The  cost  of  the  ration  is  based  upon  the  actual  cost  to  the 
Government  -of  the  articles  and  quantities  which  constitute 
them. 

Ration  returns  are  made  out  giving  the  number  of  rations 
required  for  the  number  of  men  in  the  company  for  a  certain 
number  of  days. 

Instructions  for  changes  in  strength  of  company  to  be 
made  in  ration  returns  will  be  found  in  the  morning  report 
blank  forms. 

The  following  articles  are  not  a  part  of  the  ration  and 
are  called  extra  issues :  candles,  matches,  soap,  toilet  paper. 
rock  salt,  vinegar,  ice,  flour,  (for  paste  during  target  practice). 


58  Issue  of  Rations 

Deposits — In  amounts  not  less  than  five  dollars  a 
soldier  on  active  duty  may  deposit  his  savings  to  remain  until 
the  end  of  his  enlistment  or  his  furlough  to  the  reserve. 

The  United  States  pays  four  per  cent,  per  annum  on  such 
deposits. 

Company  commanders  keep  records  -of  deposits  on  the 
men's  descriptive  lists  and  individual  deposit  books.  Deposits 
are  made  at  the  time  of  monthly  payments. 

Deposits  and  interest  are  forfeited  by  desertion,  but  can- 
not be  ordered  forfeited  by  a  court-martial.  They  are  ex- 
empt from  liability  for  indebtedness  to  private  individuals, 
but  not  so  exempt  for  indebtedness  to  the  United  States. 

Forfeitures  and  Deductions — Forfeitures  are  stoppages 
of  all  or  part  of  the  pay  of  officers  or  soldiers  and  are  the 
results  of  court-martial  sentences. 

Deductions  are  authorized  stoppages  against  the  pay  of 
officers  or  soldiers  by  reason  of  indebtedness  to  the  United 
States,  and  other  agencies  of  the  Government. 

Forfeitures  are  disciplinary  measures,  and  deductions  or 
stoppages  are  administrative  measures. 

Pay  of  Deserters — Soldiers  charged  with  desertion  will 
not  draw  pay  until  restoration  to  duty  with  or  without  trial. 
If  tried  and  sentenced,  payment  will  depend  upon  sentence. 

Pay  and  allowance  due  at  date  of  desertion  are  forfeited 
and  ,may  be  used  to  satisfy  authorized  stoppages  that  were 
due  at  date  of  desertion. 

No  settlement  of  the  pay  account  of  a  soldier  will  be  made 
until  there  be  sufficient  sum  for  the  satisfying  of  all  stop- 
pages, leaving  a  balance  for  the  soldier. 

Reward  For  Apprehension  of  Deserters — A  reward  of 
fifty  dollars  will  be  paid  to  any  civil  -officer  or  civilian  for 
the  apprehension  and  delivery  of  a  deserter  from  the  military 
service  or  an  escaped  military  prisoner.  This  reward  must 
cover  all  expenses  and  inconveniences  incurred  in  the  appre- 
hension and  delivery. 

Muster  Rolls — (Made  in  duplicate).  Muster  rolls  are  made 
out  by  company  commanders  at  the  end  of  February  and 
every  second  month  thereafter.  They  contain  the  names  of 
members  of  the  organization,  data  affecting  their  status,  and 
nature  of  service  performed. 

Pay  Rolls — (Made  out  in  triplicate).  These  are  rolls  of 
the  company  upon  which  payment  is  made.  They  are  usually 


Issue  of  Rations  59 

made  .monthly  when  circumstances  permit  monthly  payment 
of  troops.  The  rolls  contain  all  data  necessary  for  the  pro- 
per payment  of  the  men.  All  items  affecting  the  pay  of  the 
soldier  are  entered.  The  amount  due  the  soldier  is  filled  in 
by  the  quartermaster  who  is  to  make  the  payment. 

Gratuitous  Issues — In  certain  cases  articles  such  as 
chevrons,  recruit's  toilet  kits,  identification  tags  and  tape, 
etc.,  are  issued  to  the  soldier  as  are  articles  of  clothing. 
The  value  of  the  articles  so  gratuitously  issued  is  noted  upon 
the  soldier's  descriptive  list  but  will  not  be  charged  against 
his  clothing  allowance. 

Other  Issues — The  more  expensive  articles  such  as 
overcoats,  sweaters,  blankets,  ponchos,  slickers  and  oilskins, 
etc.,  which  can  be  returned  by  the  soldier  to  be  cleaned  and 
repaired  for  further  use,  are  issued  to  the  company  com- 
mander upon  memorandum  receipt,  who  in  turn  issues  them 
to  the  men  of  his  company  in  the  same  ,manner  as  the  articles 
of  equipment.  No  charge  is  made  against  the  soldier  for 
these  articles  unless  he  loses  or,  through  carelessness, 
damages  them. 

Giving  Information  For  Claims — Information  which 
could  be  made  the  basis  of  claims  against  the  Government 
shall  be  given  only  to  proper  officials  of  Departments,  when 
directed  to  do  so  by  proper  authority. 

Information  concerning  the  sick  and  wounded  may  be 
given  to  their  friends.  If  death  is  imminent,  the  immediate 
commander  will  notify  the  nearest  relative.  The  fact  of 
death  may  be  communicated  to  relatives,  but  not  the  at- 
tendant circumstances. 

Final  Statements— Final  statements  are  the  final  ac- 
counts -of  a  soldier  at  the  expiration  of  his  service,  and  ton- 
tain  name  and  rank  of  soldier,  place  of  acceptance  for  en- 
listment, date  of  enlistment,  date  of  discharge,  or  furlough 
to  reserve,  reasons  of  discharge,  enlistment  period  he  is 
serving  in,  pay  due  soldier  for  various  qualifications,  reason 
for  any  detained  pay,  clothing  undrawn,  deposits,  date  of 
last  payment,  pay  due  the  United  States  for  lost  articles  or 
stoppages,  remarks  as  to  character  of  service,  absences  with- 
out leave,  ^  and  other  absences  which  affect  his  pay.  State- 
ment is  signed  by  company  commander. 

On  back  of  the  statement  is  a  list  of  the  deposits  made 
by  the  soldier. 


60  Clothing1 

Statements   are   made   out   in   duplicate,    except   in   case   of   , 
death. 
The  quartermaster  settles  the  final  account  of  the  soldier. 

CLOTHING 

From  time  to  time  the  War  Department  publishes  in  Gen- 
eral Orders  (at  the  beginning  of  the  Fiscal  Year)  the  money 
allowance  to  soldiers  for  clothing. 

The  latest  order  on  the  subject  is  as  follows: 

Initial  allowance  to  all  soldiers  upon  enlistment $43.05 

The  monthly  share  -of  this  initial  allowance  is 7.18 

The  daily  share  of  the  initial  allowance  is .24 

The   semi-annual  .allowance    is 12.44 

(This  semi-annual  allowance  is  in  addition  to  the 
initial  allowance  upon  enlistment  or   re-enlistment.) 

The  monthly  allowance   is    2.07 

The  daily  allowance  is  .07 

Total  allowance  for  three  years  is 117.67 

Note:    These  amounts  change  somewhat  each  year. 
Every  six  months  the  Company  office  publishes  a  statement 
of   the  account   of    clothing   for    each   soldier.     This    shows 
whether  the  soldier  has  overdrawn  his  account  or  has  money 
credit  due  him. 

The  Company  commander  is  responsible  that  the  soldier 
does  not  draw  more  clothing  than  he  can  pay  for  with  money 
due  him  either  as  a  clothing  allowance  undrawn,  or  as  pay 
due. 

When  soldiers  sell,  lose  or  through  neglect  spoil  their 
clothing,  they  should  be  court-martialed  or  otherwise  pun- 
ished. 

The  clothing  allowance  is  based  upon  the  aggregate  cost 
of  the  articles  of  clothing  found  necessary  for  the  proper 
clothing  of  the  soldier. 

ISSUE  OF  CLOTHING 

(1)  Normally  the   issue   of  clothing  is  in  bulk  to   the 
Company   commander. 

(2)  Form  213  Q.  M.  C.  is  filled  out  with  the  numbers 
and   sizes   of   the   articles   required,   in   triplicate,   2  kept   by 
Q.  M.,  and  1  goes  to  Company  commander. 

(3)  Company  commander  then  issues  to  the  members 
of  his  company  on  Forms  165  Q.  M.  C. 


Record  of  Sizes  61 

(4)  Forms    165   are   made    out   in    the    company   office 
from  the  slips  of  clothing  needed  by  the  men  individually. 

(5)  After  issue,  forms   165  are  signed  by  the  men,  as 
receipts  for  the  clothing. 

(6)  Total   cost   of   clothing   drawn   is   then   entered  on 
form  165-b,  which  is  then  signed  by  the  company  commander. 

(7)  The  cost  of  the  articles  issued  to*  each  man  is  then 
entered  upon  his  descriptive  list. 

(8)  For   drawing    clothing   by    individuals,    when    it   is 
necessary  to  issue  to  one  who  for  any  reason  was  not  able 
to  draw  clothing  with  the  company  at  the  last  regular  issue : 

Form  165  is  made  out  in  duplicate  showing  the  articles 
required,  the  quartermaster  who  issues  the  clothing  enters 
the  articles  in  the  proper  column,  numbers  the  slip,  enters 
date  of  issue  and  causes  the  soldier  to  sign.  The  original  is 
kept  by  the  quartermaster  and,  the  copy  is  sent  to  the  Com- 
pany commander.  Both  quartermaster  and  Company  com- 
mander enter  the  articles  issued  on  the  slip  (165)  upon  an 
abstract  (form  180  Q.  M.  C). 

(9)  At  the  end  of   the  itnonth  the  two  abstracts  will  be 
compared  for  accuracy. 

(10)  After  each   issue   the   Company  commander  will   be 
careful  to  charge  the  amount  or  value  of  the  articles  issued 
to  the  soldier  on  his  descriptive  list. 

RECORD  OF  SIZES 

A  record  of  the  sizes  of  articles  worn  by  each  ,man  is  kept 
on  hand  in  the  Company  office,  on  form  165  Q.  M.  C. 

Note.  In  order  that  organizations  may  be  kept  in 
readiness  for  the  field  or  for  any  duty,  at  all  times,  it  is 
necessary  that  they  be  kept  properly  equipped  with  clothing. 
The  Company  commander  must  therefore  keep  track  of  the 
clothing  in  the  possession  of  each  man,  by  keeping  a  record 
and  making  frequent  inspections. 

ISSUE  OF  ORDNANCE  TO  COMPANIES 

(a)  When  a  company  is  first  formed,  an  ordnance 
requisition  is  made  out  by  entering  upon  it  the  numbers  and 
kinds  of  articles  indicated  in  the  unit  accountability  manual 
as  forming  the  unit  equipment  of  a  company  (according  to 
the  strength  of  the  company). 


62  Replacing-  of  Ordnance 

(b)  The    regimental    supply    officer    or    the    ordnance 
officer   (whichever  is  the  issuing  officer)   will  supply  such  of 
the  articles  as  he  has  on  hand  and  give  the  company  com- 
mander a  credit  sheet  for  the  articles  he  cannot  furnish.    He 
will  also  invoice  on  the  proper  form   (2  each,   invoices  and 
receipts  are  made  out),  the  articles  issued. 

(c)  The  Company  commander  then  enters  upon  Form 
451   A.   G.   O.,    (Return  of  Unit  Equipment)    the  number  of 
men  in  his  organization   for  which  he  has  a   complete  unit 
of  equipment.     If  he  lacks  certain  articles  to  make  the  equip- 
ment  complete   or   has   a   surplus    of   some   articles,   he   will 
enter  these  differences  in  the  spaces  provided  for  that  pur- 
pose. 


REPLACING  OF  ORDNANCE 

(a)  The    Company    commander    will    take    the    papers 
upon  which  he  relies  to  relieve  him  of  responsibility  for  the 
property,   to  the   supply  officer   and   exchange   them   for   the 
articles  to   replace  those  lost  or  damaged.     In   this   case  he 
makes    no   change   in   his    return    of    property.      The    supply 
officer   has  to   account   for  the   change. 

(b)  Returns   for   ordnance   are    rendered   to   the    Chief 
of  Ordnance  semi-annually. 

(c)  Returns   are   also    rendered   when   an   officer   turns 
over  his  company  to  a  successor,  when  the  period  is  of  con- 
siderable duration.     There  is  a  place   for  the  new  company 
commander^  to   sign    for   all   the   property,   thereby    relieving 
the  out   going  company   commander   from   further   responsi- 
bility,   by    sending    the    return    so    signed    to    the    Chief    of 
Ordnance. 

PUNISHMENTS 

(a)  Punishments  must  conform  to  the  law  and  follow 
the  acts  as  soon  as  practicable. 

(b)  Commanding    officers    arc    not    required    to    brin£ 
every    dereliction   of    duty   before*  a    court-martial,    but    will 
endeavor  to  maintain  discipline  by  admonitions,   withholding 
of  privileges  and  taking  such  steps  as  are  necessary  to  enforce 
their   orders.      Company   commanders   are   likewise    supposed 
to  settle   cases   of   derelictions    of    duty   which  jnay   be   sub- 
mitted to  a  summary  court,  by  giving  extra  hours  of  fatigue 


\ 

Appointment   of  Non- Commissioned   Officers  63 

unless  the  soldier  demands  a  trial  by  a  court-itnartial.     This 
right  must  always  be  made  known  to  him. 

By  Statute — Punishment  by  flogging  or  by  branding  or 
marking,  or  tattooing  on  the  body  is  prohibited.  A.  W.  41. 

By  Custom  and  Regulations — Many  punishments  for- 
merly sanctioned  have  now,  under  more  enlightened  spirit 
of  penology,  become  obsolete  as  to  be  effectually  prohibited 
by  custom  without  the  necessity  of  regulations ;  among  those 
are,  carrying  a  loaded  knap-sack,  wearing  irons  (both  hand- 
cuffs and  leg  irons,  these  are  used  only  in  exceptional  cases 
for  the  purp-ose  of  preventing  escape  and  not  as  punishment), 
shaving  the  head,  placarding,  pillory,  stocks  and  tying  up  by 
the  thumbs.  To  impose  military  duty  in  any  form  as  a  pun- 
ishment must  tend  to  degrade  it,  to  the  prejudice  of  the  best 
interests  of  the  service ;  such  punishments  as  imposing  extra 
hours  of  guard  duty  or  of  requiring  a  soldier  to  sound  all 
the  calls  at  a  post  for  a  certain  period  .are  forbidden. 

Solitary  confinement  on  bread  and  water,  and  placing  a( 
prisoner  in  irons  are  means  of  enforcing  prison  discipline. 
They  are  not  imposed  by  sentence  of  a  court  martial. 

COMPANY  COMMANDERS 

Commanding  Officers  Duties — The  commanding  officer 
of  a  company  is  responsible  for  the  instruction,  tactical  effi- 
ciency, and  preparedness  for  war  service  of  his  company; 
for  its  appearance  and  discipline ;  for  the  care  and  preserva- 
tion of  its  equipment;  and  for  the  proper  performance  of 
duties  connected  with  its  subsistence,  pay,  clothing,  accounts, 
reports,  and  returns. 

In  the  absence  of  its  captain,  the  command  of  a  company 
devolves  upon  the  subaltern  next  in  rank  who  is  serving 
with  it,  unless  otherwise  specially  directed. 

Captains  will  require  their  lieutenants  to  assist  in  the  per- 
formance of  all  company  duties,  including  the  keeping  of 
records  and  the  preparation  of  the  necessary  reports  and 
returns. 

NON-COMMISSIONED  OFFICERS 

Non-commissioned  Officers  will  be  carefully  selected 
and  instructed,  and  always  supported  by  company  command- 
ers in  the  proper  performance  of  their  duties.  They  will  not 
be  detailed  for  any  duty  nor  permitted  to  engage  in  any 


64  Appointment   of  Non-Commissioned   Officers 

occupation  inconsistent  with  their  rank  and  position.  Officers 
will  be  cautious  in  reproving  them  in  the  presence  or  hearing 
of  private  soldiers. 

Appointment  of  N.  C.  O's — Company  non-commissioned 
officers  are  appointed  by  regimental  commanders,  -or  tempo- 
rarily appointed  by  battalion  commanders,  under  certain  con- 
ditions, on  the  recommendation  of  their  company  command- 
ers ;  but  in  no  case  will  any  company  organization  have  an 
excess  of  non-commissioned  officers  above  that  allowed  by 
law.  The  non-commissioned  officers  of  Coast  Artillery  Corps 
companies,  upon  the  recommendation  of  the  company  com- 
manders, will  be  appointed  by  coast  defence  commanders. 
When  a  company  is  serving  in  a  different  department  from 
its  regimental  headquarters  and  at  such  a  distance  therefrom 
that  more  than  15  days  are  required  for  an  exchange  of  cor- 
respondence by  mail,  company  non-commissioned  officers  and 
wagoners  for  the  transportation  pertaining  to  the  company 
may  be  appointed,  -on  recommendation  of  the  co,mpany  com- 
mander, by  the  order  of  the  battalion  commander,  if  such 
commander  be  in  the  same  department  as  the  company. 
When  a  company  is  serving  in  a  different  department  from 
its  regimental  headquarters  that  more  than  15  days  are  re- 
quired for  an  exchange  of  correspondence  by  mail,  company 
non-commissioned  -officers  and  wagoners  for  the  transporta- 
tion pertaining  to  the  company  may  be  appointed  on  recom- 
mendation of  the  company  commander,  by  the  order  of  the 
senior  officer  of  the  regiment  on  duty  in  the  department  in 
which  the  company  is  serving.  (C.  A.  R.,  No.  46,  Oct.  2, 
1916.) 

Lance  Corporals — To  test  the  capacity  of  privates  for 
the  duties  of  non-commissioned  officers,  company  command- 
ers may  appoint  lance  corporals,  who  will  be  obeyed  and  re- 
spected as  corporals,  but  no  company  shall  have  more  than 
one  lance  corporal  at  a  time,  unless  there  are  non-commis- 
sioned officers  absent  by  authority,  during  which  absences 
there  may  be  one  for  each  absentee. 

Selection  of  First  Quartermaster  and  Stable  Sergeant — 

The  captain  will  select  the  first  sergeant,  quartermaster  ser- 
geant, and  stable  sergeant  from  the  sergeants  of  his  com- 
pany, and  may  return  them  to  the  grade  of  sergeant  without 
reference  to  higher  authority. 


Appointments  of  Non- Commissioned  Officers  65 

Certificates  and  Warrants — Each  non-commissioned 
officer  will  be  furnished  with  a  certificate  or  warrant  of  his 
rank,  signed  by  the  regimental  commander  and  countersigned 
by  the  regimental  adjutant;  but  a  separate  warrant  as  first 
sergeant,  quartermaster  sergeant,  or  stable  sergeant  will  not 
be  given.  A  warrant  issued  to  a  non-commissioned  officer 
is  his  personal  property.  Warrants  need  not  be  renewed  in 
cases  of  re-enlistment  in  the  same  company,  if  re-enlistment 
is  made  the  day  following  the  day  of  discharge,-  but,  unless 
otherwise  ordered  by  the  regimental  or  coast  defence  com- 
mander, on  the  recommendation  of  the  company  commander, 
will  remain  in  force  until  vacated  by  promotion  or  reduction, 
each  re-enlistment  and  continuance  to  be  noted  on  the  war- 
rant by  the  company  commander.  The  warrants  for  non- 
commissioned officers  of  the  Coast  Artillery  Corps  companies 
will  be  signed  by  the  coast  defence  commander  and  counter- 
signed by  the  coast  defence  adjutant.  (C.  A.  R.,  No.  36, 
Dec.  8,  1915.) 

Date  of  Appointments — Appointments  of  company 
non-commissioned  officers  and  acting  cooks  of  the  Hospital 
Corps  will  take  effect  on  the  day  of  appointment  by  the 
authorized  commander,  and  of  first  sergeants,  quartermaster 
sergeants,  stable  sergeants,  chief  mechanics,  cooks,  artificers, 
farriers,  horseshoers,  mechanics,  saddlers,  wagoners,  musici- 
ans, trumpeters,  and  first-class  privates  on  the  day  of  ap- 
pointment by  the  company  commander ;  but  in  case  of  va- 
cancy in  a  company  absent  from  regimental  and  battalion 
headquarters  a  company  commander  may  make  a  temporary 
appointment  of  a  non-commissioned  officer,  which  will  carry 
rank  and  pay  from  the  date  of  such  appointment.  Informa- 
tion of  the  appointment  will  be  promptly  sent  to  the  regi- 
mental commander,  and  if.  he  disapproves  it  the  increased 
rank  and  pay  will  cease  upon  receipt  by  the  company  com- 
mander of  such  disapproval. 

Reduction  to  the  Ranks — A  non-commissioned  officer 
may  be  reduced  to  the  ranks  by  sentence  of  a  court-martial, 
or,  on  the  recommendation  of  the  company  commander,  by 
the  order  of  the  commander  having  final  authority  to  appoint 
such  non-commissioned  officer,  'but  a  non-commissioned 
officer  will  not  be  reduced  because  of  absence  on  account  of 
sickness  or  injury  contracted  in  the  line  of  duty.  If  reduced 
to  the  ranks  by  sentence  of  court-martial  at  a  post  not  the 
headquarters  of  his  regiment,  the  company  commander  will 


66  Honors  and  Courtesies 

forward  a  transcript  of  the  order  to  the  regimental  com- 
mander. The  transfer  of  a  non-commissioned  officer  from 
one  organization  to  another  carries  with  it  reduction  to  the 
ranks  unless  otherwise  specified  in  the  order  by  authority 
competent  to  issue  a  new  warrant.  When  a  company  is 
serving  in  a  different  department  from  its  regimental  head- 
quarters and  at  such  a  distance  therefrom  that  more  than  15 
days  are  required  for  exchange  of  correspondence  by  mail, 
a  non-commissroned  officer  may  be  reduced  to  the  ranks,  on 
recommendation  of  the  company  commander,  by  the  order 
of  the  battalion  commander,  if  such  commander  be  in  the 
same  department  as  the  company.  When  a  company  is  serv- 
ing in  a  different  department  from  its  regimental  and  bat- 
talion headquarters,  and  at  such  a  distance  from  its  regi- 
mental headquarters  that  more  than  15  days  are  required  for 
exchange  of  correspondence  by  ,mail,  a  non-commissioned 
officer  may  be  reduced  to  the  ranks,  on  the  recommendation 
of  the  company  commander,  by  the  order  of  the  senior  officer 
of  the  regiment  on  duty  in  the  department  in  which  the  com- 
pany is  serving.  (C.  A.  R.,  No.  45,  Sept.  11,  1916.) 

Under  Arrest — When  a  non-commissioned  officer,  while 
in  arrest  or  confinement,  is  reduced  by  sentence  of  a  court- 
martial,  the  date  of  the  order  publishing  the  sentence  is  the 
date  of  reduction.  In  all  other  cases  reduction  ^  takes  effect 
on  the  date  of  receipt  of  the  order  at  the  soldier's  station. 
(C.  A.  R.,  No.  15,  Nov.  19,  1914.) 

Chief  mechanics,  cooks,  acting  cooks  of  the  Hospital  Corps, 
farriers,  horseshoers,  mechanics,  artificers,  saddlers,  wagon- 
ers, musicians,  trumpeters,  and  first-class  privates  are  enlisted 
as  privates  and  after  joining  their  organizations  are  ap- 
pointed by  their  respective  organization  commanders.  For 
inefficiency  or  misconduct  they  are  subject  to  reduction  by 
the  same  authority,  and  in  case  of  desertion  their  appoint- 
ments are  vacated  fro,m  the  date  of  their  unauthorized  ab- 
sence. (C.  A.  R.,  No.  9,  July  14,  1914.) 

HONORS  AND  COURTESIES 

The  President  and  the  Vice-President  will  be  received 
with  regimental  standards  or  colors  dropping,  officers  and 
troops  saluting,  and  the  band-playing  "The  Star  Spangled 
Banner."  Or,  in  the  absence  of  a  band,  the  field  music  or 
bugles  sounding  "to  the  color."  Officers  of  the  following 


Honors  and  Courtesies  67 

grades  of  rank  will  be  received  with  regimental  standards  or 
colors  dropping,  officers  and  troops  saluting,  and  the  bands 
and  field  music  playing,  as  follows :  The  General,  the  Gen- 
eral's March ;  the  Lieutenant  General,  trumpets  sounding  3 
flourishes  or  drums  beating  3  ruffles;  a  major  general,  3 
flourishes  or  2  ruffles;  a  brigadier  general,  1  flourish  or  1 
ruffle. 

To  the  Members  of  the  Cabinet,  the  Chief  Justice,  the 

President  pro  tempore  of  the  Senate,  the  Speaker  of  the 
House  of  Representatives,  American  or  foreign  ambassadors, 
and  governors  within  their  respective  States  and  Territories 
the  same  honors  are  paid  as  to  the  General,  except  that  a 
foreign  ambassador  will  be  received  with  the  national  air  of 
his  country,  and  that  the  number  of  guns  fired  as  personal 
salutes  will  be  as  prescribed  in  the  army  regulations  to  the  As- 
sistant Secretary  of  War  and  to  American  or  foreign  envoys 
or  ;ministers  the  same  honors  as  to  the  Lieutenant  General ;  to 
officers  of  the  Navy  the  honors  due  to  their  relative  rankj 
to  officers  of  marines  and  volunteers,  and  ttnilitia  when  in 
the  service  of  the  United  States,  the  honors  due  to  their 
rank. 

The  national  or  regimental  color  or  standard,  uncased, 
passing  a  guard  or  other  armed  body,  will  be  saluted,  the 
field  music  sounding  "to  the  color"  or  "to  the  standard." 
Officers  or  enlisted  men  passing  the  uncased  color  will  render 
the  prescribed  salute ;  with  no  arms  in  hand,  the  salute  will 
be  the  hand  salute,  using  the  right  hand,  the  headdress  not 
to  be  removed. 

"The  Star  Spangled  Banner,"  whenever  played  at  a 
military  station,  or  at  any  place  where  persons  belonging  to 
the  military  service  are  present  in  their  official  capacity  or 
present  unofficially  but  in  uniform,  all  officers  and  enlisted 
men,  not  in  ranks,  will  stand  at  salute,  facing  toward  the 
music,  retaining  that  position  until  the  last  note  of  the  air. 
With  no  arms  in  hand  the  salute  will  be  the  hand 
salute.  The  same  respect  will  be  observed  toward  the  na- 
tional air  of  any  other  country,  when  it  is  played  as  com- 
pliment to  official  representatives  of  such  country.  When 
played  under  the  circumstances  contemplated  by  this  para- 
graph. "The  Star  Spangled  Banner"  will  be  played  through 
without  repetition  of  any  part,  that  is  not  required  to  be  re- 
peated to  make  the  air  complete. 


68  Honors  and  Courtesies 

No  honors  are  paid  by  troops  when  on  the  march  or  in 
trenches,  except  that  they  may  be  called  to  attention  and  no 
salute  is  rendered  when  marching  in  double  time  or  at  the 
trot  or  gallop. 

The,  commanding  officer  is  saluted  by  all  commissioned 
officers  in  command  of  troops  or  detachments.  Troops  under 
arms  will  salute  as  prescribed  in  drill  regulations. 

When  making  or  receiving  official  report  all  officers 
will  salute.  When  under  arms,  the  salute  is  made  with  the 
sword  or  saber,  if  drawn,  otherwise  with  the  hand.  On  meet- 
ing, all  officers  salute  when  covered ;  when  uncovered,  they 
exchange  the  courtesies  observed  between  gentlemen.  Military 
courtesy  requires  the  junior  to  salute  first,  but  when  the  salute 
is  introductory  to  a  report  made  at  a  military  ceremony  or 
formation  to  the  representative  of  a  common  superior — as, 
for  example,  to  the  adjutant,  officer  of  the  day,  etc. — the 
officer  making  the  report,  whatever  his  rank,  will  salute  first; 
the  officer  to  whom  the  report  is  made  will  acknowledge,  by 
saluting,  if  covered  or  verbally  if  uncovered,  that  he  has  re- 
ceived and  understood  the  report. 

When  an  enlisted  man  with  no  arms  in  hand  passes  an 
officer  he  salutes  with  the  right  hand.  Officers  are  saluted 
whether  in  uniform  or  not. 

Armed  with  the  saber  and  out  of  ranks,  an  enlisted  man 
salutes  all  officers  with  the  saber  if  drawn ;  otherwise  he 
salutes  with  the  hand.  If  on  foot  and  armed  with  a  rifle  or 
carbine,  he  makes  the  rifle  or  carbine  salute.  A  mounted 
soldier  dismounts  before  addressing  an  officer  not  mounted. 

A  non-commissioned  officer  or  private  in  command  of 

a  detachment  without  arms  salutes  dll  officers  with  the  hand, 
but  if  the  detachment  be  on  foot  and  armed  with  the  rifle 
or  carbine,  he  makes  the  rifle  or  carbine  salute  and  if  armed 
with  a  saber  he  salutes  with  it. 

An  enlisted  man,  if  seated,  rises  on  the. approach  of  an 

officer,  faces  toward  him,  and  if  covered,  salutes ;  if  un- 
covered, he  stands  at  attention.  Standing  he  faces  an  officer 
for  the  same  purpose.  If  the  parties  remain  in  the  same 
or  on  the  same  ground,  such  compliments  need  not  be 


Army  Employed  as  Fosse  Comitatus  69 

repeated.     Soldiers  actually  at  work  do  not  cease  work  to 
salute  an  officer  unless  addressed  by  him. 

Before  addressing  an  officer,  an  enlisted  man  makes  the 
prescribed  salute  with  the  weapon  with  which  he  is  armed, 
or,  if  unarmed  and  covered,  with  the  right  hand.  He  also 
makes  the  same  salute  after  receiving  a  reply. 

Indoors,  except  as  provided  elsewhere,  an  unarmed  en- 
listed man  uncovers  and  stands  at  attention  upon  the  ap- 
proach of  an  officer.  If  armed,  he  salutes  as  heretofore  pre- 
scribed. 

When  an  officer  enters  a  room  where  there  are  soldiers, 
the  word  "Attention"  is  given  by  some  one  who  perceives 
him,  when  all  rise  and  remain  standing  in  the  position  of  a 
soldier  until  the  officer  leaves  the  room.  Soldiers  at  meals 
do  not  rise. 

Soldiers  at  all  times  and  in  all  situations  pay  the  same 
compliments  to  officers  of  the  Army,  Navy,  Marine  Corps 
and  volunteers,  and  to  officers  of  the  Organized  Militia  in 
uniform  as  to  officers  of  their  own  regiment,  corps,  or  arm 
of  service. 

Officers  acknowledge  at  all  times  the  courtesies  of  en- 
listed men  by  returning,  in  the  manner  prescribed  the  salute 
given.  When  several  officers  in  company  are  saluted,  all  re- 
turn it. 

On  all  occasions  outdoors,  and  also  in  public  places, 
such  as  stores,  theatres,  railway  and  steamboat  stations,  and 
the  like,  the  salute  to  any  person  whatever  by  officers  and 
enlisted  men  in  uniform,  with  no  arms  in  hand,  whether  on 
or  off  duty,  shall  be  the  hand  salute,  the  right  hand  being 
used,  the  headdress  not  to  be  removed. 

The  national  salute  is  21  guns.  It  is  also  the  salute  to 
a  national  flag.  The  salute  to  the  Union,  commemorative  of 
the  Declaration  of  Independence  and  consisting  of  1  gun  for 
each  State,  is  fired  at  noon  on  July  4  at  every  post  provided 
with  suitable  artillery. 

ARMY   EMPLOYED   AS   POSSE   COMITATUS 

It  shall  not  be  lawful  to  employ  any  part  of  the  Army 
of  the  United  States,  as  a  posse  comitatus,  or  otherwise,  for 


70  Army  Employed  as  Pcsse  Comitatus 

the  purpose  of  executing  the  laws  except  in  such  cases  and 
under  such  circumstances  as  such  employment  of  said  force 
may  be  expressly  authorized  by  the  Constitution  or  by  act 
of  Congress ;  and  no  money  appropriated  by  this  act  shall 
be  used  to  pay  any  of  the  expenses  incurred  in  the  employ- 
ment of  any  troops  in  violation  of  this  section. 

Officers  of  the  Army  will  not  permit  troops  under  their 
command  to  be  used  to  aid  the  civil  authorities  as  a  posse 
comitatus,  or  in  execution  of  the  laws,  except  as  provided 
in  the  foregoing  paragraph. 

If  time  will  admit,  applications  for  the  use  of  troops  for 
such  purposes  must  be  forwarded,  with  statements  of  all 
material  facts,  for  the  consideration  and  action  of  the  Presi- 
dent; but  in  case  of  sudden  and, unexpected  invasion,  insur- 
rection, or  riot,  endangering  the  public  property  of  the  United 
States,  or  in  case  of  attempted  or  threatened  robbery  or  in- 
terruption of  the  United  States  mails,  or  other  equivalent 
emergency  so  imminent  as  to  render  it  dangerous  to  await 
instructions  requested  through  the  speediest  means  of  com- 
munication, an  officer  of  the  Army  may  take  such  action 
before  the  receipt  of  instructions  as  the  circumstances  of  the 
case  and  the  law  under  which  he  is  acting  may  justify,  and 
will  promptly  report  his  action  and  the  circumstances  re- 
quiring it  to  the  Adjutant  General  of  the  Army,  by  telegraph, 
if  possible,  for  the  information  of  the  President. 

In  the  enforcement  of  the  laws  troops  are  employed  as 
a  part  of  the  military  power  of  the  United  States  and  act 
under  the  orders  of  the  President  as  Commander-in-Chief. 
They  cannot  be  directed  to  act  under  the  orders  of  any  civil 
officer.  The  commanding  officers  of  troops  so  employed  are 
directly  responsible  to  their  military  superiors.  Any  unlaw- 
ful or  unauthorized  act  on  their  part  will  not  be  excusable 
on  the  ground  of  an  order  or  request  received  by  them  from 
a  marshal  or  any  other  civil  officer. 

Troops  called  into  action  against  a  mob  forcibly  resist- 
ing or  obstructing  the  execution  of  the  laws  of  the  United 
States  or  attempting  to  destroy  property  belonging  to  >or 
underv  the  protection  of  the  United  States  are  governed  by 
the  general  regulations  of  the  Army  and  apply  military  tactics 
in  respect  to  the  manner  in  which  they  shall  act  to  accomplish 
the  desired  end.  It  is  purely  a  tactical  question  in  what 
manner  they  shall  use  the  weapons  with  which  they  are 


Army  Employed  as  Posse   Comitatus  71 

armed — whether  by  fire  of  musketry  and  artillery  or  by  the 
use  of  the  bayonet  and  saber,  or  by  both,  and  at  what  stage 
of  the  operations  each  or  either  mode  of  attack  shall  be 
employed.  This  tactical  question  will  be  decided  by  the 
immediate  commander  of  the  troops,  according  to  his  judg- 
ment of  the  situation.  The  fire  of  troops  should  be  withheld 
until  timely  warning  has  been  given  to  the  innocent  who  may 
be  mingled  with  the  mob.  Troops  must  never  fire  into  a  crowd 
unless  ordered  by  their  commanding  officer,  except  that  single 
selected  sharpshooters  may  shoot  down  individual  rioters  who 
have  fired  upon  or  thrown  (missiles  at  the  troops.  As  a 
general  rule  the  bayonet  alone  should  be  used  against  mixed 
crowds  in  the  first  stages  of  a  revolt.  But  as  soon  as  suffi- 
cient warning  has  been  given  to  enable  the  innocent  to  sepa- 
rate themselves  from  the  guilty,  the  action  of  the  troops 
should  be  governed  solely  by  the  tactical  consideration  in- 
volved in  the  duty  they  are  ordered  to  perform.  They  should 
make  their  blows  so  effective  as  to  promptly  suppress  all 
resistance  to  lawful  authority,  and  should  stop  the  destruc- 
tion of  life  the  moment  lawless  resistance  has  ceased.  Pun- 
ishment belongs,  not  to  the  troops,  but  to  the  courts  -of 
justice. 


\ 


CHAPTER  III. 

THE  SERVICE  RIFLE 

In  the  preparation  of  these  notes  on  rifle  firing,  with  the 
service  rifle,  an  effort  has  been  made  to  answer  many 
questions  that  present  themselves  to  the  inexperienced.  A 
few  of  the  most  important  questions  on  the  subject  are 
herein  asked  and  answered  in  such  a  manner,  it  is  hoped, 
as  to  make  each  point  clear  to  the  average  mind. 

1.  What   is    meant  by   the   "rifling"   of   a   fire   arm? 
A.    The   spiral   grooving   of   the   bore. 

2.  What  are  the  lands? 

A.  The  raised  portions  of  the  bore  between  the 
grooves. 

3.  What   is   meant  by   caliber? 

A.     The  diameter  of  the  bore  between  the  lands. 

4.  What  is   the   caliber   of   the   U.    S.    Army  rifle?      ' 
A.     .30   (thirty  hundredths   of  an  inch). 

5.  What  is   the   purpose   of  rifling? 

A.  To  cause  the  bullet  or  projectile  to  rotate  about 
its  longer  axis. 

6.  Why  is  it  desirable  that  the  bullet  rotate  about  its 
longer  axis? 

A.  So  long  as  the  bullet  rotates  about  its  longer  axis 
at  a  high  rate  of  speed,  it  will  not  wabble  or  turn  end 
over  end. 

7.  Why  is  it  necessary  that  the  bullet  should  not  wab- 
ble or  tumble? 

A.  Every  motion  that  the  bullet  makes,  not  directly 
in  the  proper  line  of  flight,  increases  unnecessarily,  the 
amount  of  resistance  to  be  overcome  in  its  passage 
through  the  air. 

8.  Why   is   a  bullet   elongated   and   pointed   instead   of 
spherical? 

A.  A  bullet  of  this  shape  meets  with  less  resistance  on 
account  of  its  smaller  cross-section  and  ease  with  which 

72 


The  Service  Rifle  73 

the  point  penetrates  the  air,  than  does  a  spherical  bullet 
of  the  same  weight. 

9.  Describe  the  action  of  the  explosive  upon  the  bul- 
let? 

A.  The  powder  is  so  made  that  its  combustion  is  com- 
pleted as  the  bullet  reaches  the  muzzle  of  the  rifle.  This 
causes  a  steadily  increasing  pressure,  upon  the  bullet,  so 
long  as  it  is  confined  within  the  limits  of  the  bore,  which 
reaches  its  maximum  just  before  the  bullet  leaves  the 
muzzle.  There  is  a  common  belief  that  the  powder  ex- 
plodes all  at  once,  but  this  is  not  so.  Were  this  the  case, 
a  rupture  of  the  rifle  barrel  would  result. 

10.  Describe  the  flight  of  the  bullet. 

A.  The  bullet  describes  a  curve  which  is  constantly 
changing  and  becoming  more  pronounced  as  it  ap- 
proaches the  end  of  its  flight.  In  addition  to  this  curve 
in  a  vertical  plane  the  bullet  deviates  laterally  from  the 
line  of  the  axis  of  the  bore.  „ 

11.  What  causes  the  constant  changing  of  the  shape  of 
the  curve? 

A.  This  change  is  due  to  the  decrease  in  the  forward 
velocity  caused  by  the  resistance  of  the  air  and  the  increase 
of  the  downward  velocity  caused  by  gravity  during  the  flight. 

12.  What   causes   lateral   or  horizontal   deviation? 

A.  The  downward  deviation  of  the  bullet  from  the  line 
of  the  axis  of  the  bore  causes  a  compression  of  the  air 
under  it,  and  a  corresponding  rarifying  of  the  air  on  top. 
The  rapid  rotation  of  the  bullet  to  the  right  causes  it  to 
roll,  as  it  were,  on  a  cushion  of  compressed  air  beneath  it. 

13.  How  is  the  effect  of  gravity  offset? 

A.  By  directing  the  bullet  toward  a  point  higher  than 
that  to  be  hit. 

14.  What   is   the   principle   upon  which   sight  elevation 
is  based? 

A.  The  sight  elevation  is  so  arranged  that  when  the 
sights  are  aligned  upon  the  point  of  aim,  the  axis  of  the 
bore  prolonged  will  pass  through  the  plane  of  the  target 
at  a  point  whose  distance  above  the  center  of  the  bull's 
eye  is  equal  to  the  distance  through  which  the  bullet 
will  fall  during  the  time  of  flight. 

15.  How   is   lateral   normal  deviation    corrected? 


74  The  Service  Rifle 

A.  The  rifle  has  a  right-hand  twist,  and  the  drift 
proper  is  therefore  to  the  right.  There  is,  however,  a 
slight  lateral  jump  to  the  left,  and  the  total  horizontal 
deviation  of  the  bullet,  excluding  wind,  is  the  algebraic 
sum  of  the  drift  and  the  lateral  jump.  The  trajectory  is 
found  to  be  very  slightly  to  the  left  of  the  central  or 
uncorrected  line  of  sight  up  to  a  range  of  500  yards,  and 
beyond  that  range  to  the  right  of  this  line.  In  order  to 
minimize  the  deviations  at  the  most  important  ranges,  the 
drift  slot  on  the  sight  leaf  is  so  cut  as  to  make  the  trajec- 
tory cross  the  adjusted  line  of  sight  at  a  range  of  500 
yards. 

16.  What  is   meant  by  "twist"? 

A.  The  spiral  formed  by  the  grooves  in  the  barrel  of 
a  rifled  firearm.  In  the  United  States  magazine  rifle, 
model  1903,  this  twist  is  uniform,  one  turn  in  10  inches. 

17.  What  is  meant  by   the  "normal"   sight? 

A.  The  alignment  of  the  top  of  the  front  sight  be- 
tween point  of  aim  and  the  center  of  the  top  of  the  rear 
sight  notch. 

18.  Describe  the  peep  sight. 

A.  In  using  the  peep  sight  the  top  of  the  front  sight 
is  aligned  between  the  point  of  aim  and  the  center  of 
aperture. 

19.  Why  are  these  methods  of  sighting  insisted  upon 
for  military  shooting? 

A.  Because  the  object  of  the  training  is  to  develop  in 
the  soldier  not  only  accuracy  but  endurance.  The  use  of 
fine  sights  can  not  be  continued  for  long,  continued  and 
rapid  firing,  without  great  strain  and  fatigue  to  the  eye. 
As  the  eye  becomes  weaker  it  will  become  difficult  for 
the  firer  to"  measure  the  tip  of  the  front  sight  as  ac- 
curately as  before,  with  the  result  that  more  front  sight 
will  be  taken.  This  lack  of  uniformity  in  sighting  is  fatal 
to  good  shooting. 

With  the  normal  sight  and  the  peep  sight  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  front  sight  is  in  view,  and  while  aiming,  any 
deviation  of  the  top  of  the  front  sight  from  the  line  join- 
ing the  center  of  the  peep  'hole  or  the  center  of  the  top 
line  of  the  rear  sight  notch,  will  be  plainly  visible,  with- 
out taxing  the  eye  unduly. 

20.  What   is   the   battle   sight? 


The  Service  Rifle  75 

A.  It  is  the  position  of  the  rear  sight  with  the  leaf 
laid  down. 

21.  What  is  the  idea  of  the  battle  sight? 

A.  During  the  fighting  at  ranges  under  six  hundred 
yards  conditions  are  not  favorable  to  the  changing  of 
sight  elevation  and  for  this  reason  the  soldiers  are  taught 
to  use  the  sight  at  this  elevation  for  all  firing  from  about 
550  yards  down  to  point  blank  range.  By  learning  where 
to  aim  in  order  to  get  hits  at  these  ranges,  the  necessity 
for  changing  the  sight  adjustment  is  obviated.  At  547 
yards  and  under,  the  trajectory  of  the  bullet  is  so  near 
the  ground  that  the  entire  space  is  covered  by  a  grazing 
lire,  the  highest  point  of  which  is  not  above  the  head  of 
a  man  in  the  kneeling  position. 

22.  What   is   the   effect   of  a  bright   sight   upon   shoot- 
ing? 

A.  The  rays  of  light  reflected  from  the  bright  sight 
make  the  edges  of  the  sighf  appear  blurred.  The  front 
sight  will  also  appear  to  be  slightly  higher  than  it  really 
is  which  will  cause  the  axis  of  the  bore  to  be.  somewhat 
depressed  when  the  sights  are  aligned,  and  have  the  ef- 
fect of  lowering  the  elevation. 

23.  What    is    done    to    correct  the    brightness    of    the 
sights  ? 

A.  They  are  blackened  by  smoking  with  a  candle,  or 
gum  camphor  or  by  applying  some  sight  blackening 
compound  which  will  give  the  sights  a  dead  or  dull  back 
appearance  incapable  of  reflecting  rays  of  light  of  a  na- 
ture to  interfere  with  clear  vision. 

24.  When  firing  from  the  prone  position  at  500  yards, 
what  is  the  height  of  the  top  of  the  curve  described  by 
the  bullet? 

A.    About  28  inches. 

25.  At  what   distance   from  the   muzzle   is   the   highest 
point   of  the   curve,  described  by  the   bullet,   when   firing 
at  500  yards? 

A.  270.56  yards. 

26.  What  is   the  maximum   range  of  the   rifle? 
A.  4891.6  yards,  or  about  2  and  4-5  miles. 

27.  What  is  meant  by  the  "aiming  point?" 

A.  The  point  upon  which  the  sights  are  aligned,  when 
aiming. 


76  The  Service  Rifle 

28.  How  is  the  wind  direction  described  on  the  range? 
A.     As  a  12:00  o'clock,  2:00  o'clock,  3:00  o'clock  etc.  wind. 

For  this  purpose  the  firer  is  supposed  to  be  in  the  center  of  a 
great  horizontal  clock  dial  with  the  figure  12  toward  the 
target.  The  wind  is  then  said  to  be  a  (such)  o'clock 
wind  according  to  the  imaginary  figure  on  the  dial  from 
which  it  is  blowing  toward  the  firer. 

29.  How  is   wind  velocity   determined? 

A.  By  the  use  of  an  anemometer  and  by  estimation. 
Proficiency  in  estimating  wind  velocity  is  attained  by 
much  practice  in  estimating  and  in  comparing  the  esti- 
mates with  the  readings  of  the  anemometer. 

30.  What   is    the    rule   for   making   windage    correction 
when   the   amount    of   error   is   known? 

A.  Number  of  inches  of  error  divided  by  the  product 
of  the  number  of  hundreds  of  yards  of  the  range  and  4, 
equal  number  of  points  of  windage  to  be  taken. 

Example:  Firing  at  five  hundred  yards  the  bullet  strikes 
a  point  on  the  target  24  inches  to  the  right  of  the  center. 
We  have :  number  of  inches  of  error  equals  24,  number 
of  hundreds  of  yards  of  range  equals  5.  Divide  24  by 
(4x5)  or  20  and  the  result  is  1  1-5  which  is  the  number 
points  of  windage  necessary  to  correct  the  error. 

Each  soldier  should  remember  that  for  each  hundred 
yards  of  range  one  point  of  windage  causes  a  change  of 
4  inches  on  the  target.  At  100  yards  1  point  makes  a 
change  of  four  inches,  at  200  yards  1  point  makes  a  change 
of  8  inches  and  so  on  for  all  the  ranges. 

31.  What   is   the   rule   or   formula  for  ascertaining  the 
amount    of    windage    necessary  for    firing    the    first    shot 
when  the  wind  is   considerable? 

A.  Range  in  hundreds  of  yards  multiplied  by  the  esti- 
mated velocity  in  miles  per  hour,  divided  by  10.  This  is 
for  9  and  3  o'clock  winds.  Winds  from  2,  4,  8  and  10 
o'clock  require  very  little  less  windage  than  the  above. 
Winds  from  11,  1,  5  and  7  o'clock  require  one  half  the 
above  amount. 

32.  How   is  wind   direction    determined? 

A.  By  noticing  the  direction  of  the  smoke  from  neigh- 
boring houses,  the  direction  of  the  clouds,  the  direction 
of  the  mirage,  by  tossing  dust  or  dead  leaves  or  grass 
in  the  air,  by  holding  a  handkerchief  or  strip  of  cloth  for 


The   Service   Rifle  77 

the  action  of  the  wind,  or  by  the  feel  of  the  wind  against 
the  face.  When  the  wind  velocity  is  very  low  moisten 
the  finger  in  the  mouth  and  hold  it  up.  The  side  from 
which  the  wind  is  coming  will  be  noticeably  colder. 

33.  What  is  meant  by  "canting"  the  piece? 

A.  Any  position  of  the  rifle,  when  aimed,  in  which 
the  sights  are  tipped  to  one  sidev  or  the  other  out  of  the 
vertical  plane. 

34.  Describe  the   effect   of  canting  the  piece. 

A.  Moving  the  sight  to  the  right  or  left  out  of  the 
vertical  will  have  the  effect  of  taking  windage.  This 
changed  position  of  the  sight  will  also  be  somewhat 
lower  than  if  it  were  directly  above  the  axis  of  the  bore. 
To  show  these  two  effects  of  canting  the  piece  let  us 
assume  that  the  piece  is  canted  so  that  it  is  lying  on 
its  side.  In  this  position  it  will  be  seen  that  there  is  no 
longer  any  elevation  since  the  rear  and  the  front  sights 
are  in  the  same  horizontal  plane.  Also  it  is  very  plain 
that  in  this  position  the  difference  in  the  distances  of  the 
front  and  rear  sights  from  the  axis  of  the  bore  has  the 
effect  of  giving  an  excessive  windage  or  lateral  deviation 
from  the  aiming  point.  In  order  to  illustrate  this  to  a 
beginner,  simply  fix  the  rifle  in  this  position  with  the 
sights  aligned  upon  the  aiming  point.  Then  remove  the 
bolt  and  look  through  the  bore  of  the  rifle  and  see  the 
point  in  the  plane  of  the  target  that  the  line  of  the  axis 
of  the  bore  will  intersect.  This  point  will  be  to  the  right 
or  left  of  the  aiming  point  a  distance  equal  to  the  amount 
of  elevation  given  the  bullet  were  the  rifle  fired  without 
canting  it.  With  no  elevation  therefore  and  with  exces- 
sive windage  the  bullet  will  strike  to  the  right  or  left  of 
and  below  the  aiming  point. 

35.  What  is  the  effect  of  wind  upon  the  flight  of  the 
bullet? 

A.  The  force  of  the  wind  acting  upon  the  bullet  tends 
to  carry  it  out  of  its  normal  path. 

36.  How  do  the  winds  from  the  various  directions  af- 
fect the  flight  of  the  bullet? 

A.  Winds  directly  from  the  front  retard  the  bullet; 
from  the  rear  accelerate;  from  the  right  or  left  cause  a 
left  or  right  deviation;  from  the  right  or  left  front  cause 
a  lateral  deviation  to  the  left  or  right  and  also  retard 


78  The  Service   Rifle 

the   bullet;    from    the   right   or    left   rear    cause    a    lateral 
deviation  to  the  left  or  right  and  accelerate  the  bullet. 

37.  How  is   lateral  deviation  caused  by  the  wind  cor- 
rected? 

A.  By   using   the   windgauge   screw   to    move    the   rear 

sight  toward  the  side  from  which  the  wind  is  coming. 

38.  How  is  the  retarding  and  accelerating  effect  of  the 
wind  corrected? 

A.  By  increasing  or  decreasing  the  elevation  of  the 
rear  sight. 

39.  What  makes  a  rifle  shoot  higher  when  it  becomes 
heated? 

A.  The  heated  condition  of  the  barrel  makes  the  com- 
bustion more  complete.  The  gases  expand  with  just  a 
little  more  force  in  the  heated  barrel.  There  are  other 
reasons  advanced  by  many  for  this  increase  in  elevation, 
such  as  the  slight  elongation  of  the  barrel  and  the  effect 
of  the  heat  upon  the  diameter  of  the  bore.  These  also 
are  reasons  for  very  slight  changes  but  not  sufficient  for 
the  amount  of  change  that  takes  place  in  firing  when  the 
rifle  first  becomes  warm. 

40.  What  is  meant  by  the  zero  of  a  rifle? 

A.  It  is  impossible  to  manufacture  at  reasonable  cost, 
large  number  of  rifles  exactly  similar  in  every  respect. 
The  testing  of  all  the  rifles  made  for  the  army  by  long 
and  expensive  processes  is  entirely  out  of  the  question. 
Some  of  the  rifles,  owing  to  slight  inaccuracies  of  manu- 
facture, require  a  slightly  different  sight  setting  than  is 
normal  for  the  rifles  generally.  This  sight  setting  which 
gives  normal  results  under  normal  conditions  is  what  is 
called  the  "zero"  for  the  particular  rifle  requiring  such 
sight  setting.  This  applies  to  both  elevation  and  windage 
in  some  cases. 

41.  What  is  "mirage"? 

A.  Heat  waves  observed  on  the  target  range  on  warm 
days. 

42.  What   effect  has   "mirage"   upon  firing? 

A.     If  there  is  no  wind  blowing,  the  mirage  will  move 
•  straight  upward  and  will  give  the  bull's  eye  the  appear- 
ance of  being  oblong,  the  longer  axis  being  vertical.    The 
entire  target  will  appear  to  be  elongated  vertically  which 
will  make  the  bull's  eye  appear  higher  than   it  really  is, 


The  Service  Rifle  79 

and  necessitate  a  lowering  of  the  elevation.  When  a  wind 
is  blowing  gently  the  mirage  in  addition  to  rising,  moves 
with  the  wind  and  causes  the  bull's  eye  to  be  elongated 
upward  and  to  the  right  or  left  according  to  the  direction 
of  the  wind. 

43.  What  are   shot  marks? 

A.  They  are  pieces  of  card  board  or  tin,  with  springs 
attached  to  them  for  fastening  them  over  the  shot  holes 
in  targets.  They  are  3,  5,  and  10  inches  in  diameter  and 
are  white  one  side  and  black  on  the  other.  They  are 
used  to  mark  on  the  bull's  eye  target  the  position  of  the 
last  hit. 

44.  What  are  the  natural  requisites  for  one  to  become 
a  good  shot? 

A.  In  order  for  a  person  to  become  a  good  shot  he 
should  be  in  good  physical  condition  particularly  as  to 
eye  sight.  One's  nerves  should  be  in  excellent  control 
and  one  should  not  be  easily  excited. 

45.  What  training  and  development  should  one  under- 
go to  become  a  good  shot? 

A.  First  of  all  it  is  necessary  for  one  to  take  con- 
siderable physical  exercise  regularly  prior  to  the  practice 
on  the  range.  The  development  of  the  muscles  used  in 
firing  is  of  prime  importance.  The  ability  to  sight  cor- 
rectly must  also  be  developed,  and  then  should  follow 
earnest  practice  in  using  the  muscles  used  in  firing  in 
conjunction  with  the  practice  in  aiming.  In  this  way 
soon  develops  the  ability  to  hold  the  rifle  properly  aimed 
and  to  pull  the  trigger  without  deranging  the  true  aim. 
When  one  has  accomplished  this  considerable  progress 
has  been  made  toward  becoming  a  good  shot.  The  state 
of  one's  ability  to  "hold"  well  is  indicated  by  the  results 
obtained  at  gallery  practice.  During  the  preliminary  work 
one  should  study  the  effects  of  wind,  changes  of  light, 
humidity,  temperature,  mirage,  etc.,  and  learn  the  theory 
of  the  use  of  the  sight  adjustments  both  as  to  windage 
and  elevation.  Later  on  one  must  develop  the  ability  to 
estimate  wind  velocity,  and  every  rifleman  should  know 
how  to  take  the  very  best  care  of  his  rifle  in  order  that 
he  may  always  obtain  the  best  results  from  it.  For  de- 
tailed instruction  as  to  how  best  to  carry  out  the  prac- 
ice  in  sighting  and  aiming,  see  "Sighting  drills"  and 


80  The  Service  Rifle 

"Position  and  Aiming  drills"  on  pages  85  and  90. 

46.  Why   should   the    cleaning   rod   be    inserted   at   the 
breech  end  of  the  bore? 

A.  In  order  that  no  possible  injury  shall  be  done  the 
lands  near  the  muzzle. 

47.  Describe    the     removal    of  fouling    from    the    rifle 
barrel? 

A.  Fouling  is  of  two  kinds,  that  caused  by  the  powder 
and  caused  by  particles  of  metal  from  the  jacket  of  the 
bullet  adhering  to  the  bore. 

First  remove  the  bolt  and  from  the  breech  end  of  the 
bore  remove  all  powder  fouling  by  means  of  a  cleaning 
rod  and  patches  of  thin  flannel  or  other  soft  cloth  soaked 
in  "Hoppe's  Powder  Solvent  No.  9".  The  rags  should 
be  about  1  1-4  inches  square.  This  cleaning  must  be 
continued  until  all  the  powder  fouling  has  been  removed. 
The  barrel  should  then  be  thoroughly  wiped  out  with 
clean,  dry  patches.  After  the  powder  fouling  has  been  re- 
moved use  the  following  solution:  Ammonia  persulphate 
1  ounce;  Ammonium  carbonate,  200  grams;  28  per  cent, 
ammonia  6  ounces  and  water  4  ounces.  The  two  powders 
should  be  freed  from  lumps  by  mashing  them  separately. 
Dissolve  the  persulphate  in  the  ammonia  and  the  car- 
bonate in  the  water  and  then  both  solutions  should  be 
placed  togther  in  a  bottle  and  corked.  In  an  hour  this 
solution  will  be  ready  to  use. 

Stop  the  breech  end  of  the  bore  with  a  suitable  cork 
and  fill  the  barrel  with  the  solution.  This  should  be  left 
in  the  barrel  not  more  than  ten  minutes.  Immediately 
after  removing  the  solution  from  the  barrel  pour  water 
into  the  bore  to  stop  the  action  of  the  solution  on  the 
metal.  The  barrel  should  then  be  dried  and  thoroughly 
wiped  out  and  an  oily  rag  passed  through  it. 

48.  Describe  cleaning  the  rifle. 

A.  After  firing,  the  bore  of  rifle  should  be  thoroughly 
cleaned  with  the  No.  9,  powder  solvent,  wiped  out  again 
and  an  oily  rag  passed  through  it.  The  outside  of  the 
rifle  should  be  given  a  thin  coating  of  cosmic  or  3  in  1 
oil  for  the  metal  parts  and  linseed  oil  for  the  stock.  The 
magazine  and  other  working  parts  should  be  kept  clean 
and  oiled.  Every  rifle  should  be  cleaned  sufficiently  often 
to  prevent  the  formation  of  rust. 


The  Service  Rifle  81 

The  sling  should  be  kept  soft  and  pliable  by  the  mod- 
erate use  of  neats-foot  oil. 

49.  What  is  the  time  of  flight  for  the  maximum  range? 
A.    38.058  seconds. 

50.  What  is  the  maximum  number  of  aimed  shots  that 
have  been   fired   from  the  rifle   in  one  minute? 

A.    25. 

51.  What    is    the    weight    of   the    bullet?    The    powder 
charge? 

A.     Bullet  150  grains.    Powder  50  grains. 

52.  Describe    dismounting   the   bolt? 

A.  Place  the  cut-off  at  the  center  notch;  cock  the  arm 
and  turn  the  safety  lock  to  a  vertical  position,  raise  the 
bolt  handle  and  draw  out  the  bolt. 

Hold  bolt  in  left  hand,  press  sleeve  lock  in  with  thumb 
of  right  hand  to  unlock  sleeve  bolt,  and  unscrew  sleeve 
by  turning  to  the  left. 

Hold  sleeve  between* fore  finger  and  thumb  of  the  left 
hand,  draw  cocking  piece  back  with  middle  finger  and 
thumb  of  right  hand,  turn  safety  lock  down  to  the  left 
with  forefinger  of  the  right  hand,  in  order  to  allow  the 
cocking  piece  to  move  forward  in  sleeve;  thus  partially 
relieving  the  tension  of  the  main  spring;  with  the  cock- 
ing piece  against  breast,  draw  back  the  firing  pin  sleeve 
with  the  fore  finger  and  thumb  of  right  hand  and  hold 
it  in  this  position  while  removing  the  striker  with  the 
left  hand;  pull  firing  pin  out  of  sleeve;  turn  the  extractor 
to  the  right,  forcing  its  tongue  out  of  the  groove  in  the 
front  of  the  bolt,  and  force  the  extractor  forward  and  off 
the  bolt. 

53.  Describe  assembling  the  bolt. 

A.  Grasp  with  the  left  hand  the  rear  of  the  bolt, 
handle  up,  and  turn  the  extractor  collar  with  the  thumb 
and  forefinger  of  the  right  hand  until  its.  lug  is  on  a  line 
with  the  safety  lug  of  the  bolt;  take  the  extractor  in 
the  right  hand  and  insert  the  lug  on  the  collar  in  the 
under-cuts  in  the  extractor  by  pushing  the  extractor  to 
the  rear  until  its  tongue  comes  in  contact  with  the  rim 
on  the  face  of  the  bolt  (a  slight  pressure  with  the  left 
thumb  on  the  top  of  the  rear  part  of  the  extractor  assists 
in  this  operation)  ;  turn  the  extractor  to  the  right  until 
it  is  over  the  right  lug;  take  the  bolt  in  the  right  hand 


82  The  Service  Rifle 

and  press  the  hook  of  the  extractor  against  the  butt  plate 
or  some  rigid  object,  until  the  tongue  on  the  extractor 
enters  its  groove  in  the  bolt. 

With  the  safety  lock  turned  down  to  the  left  to  permit 
the  firing  pin  to  enter  the  sleeve  as  far  as  possible,  as- 
semble the  sleeve  and  firing  pin;  place  the  cocking  piece 
against  the  breast  and  put  on  main  spring,  firing  pin 
sleeve  and  striker.  Hold  the  cocking  piece  between  the 
thumb  and  forefinger  of  the  left  hand,  and  by  pressing 
the  striker  point  against  some  substance,  not  hard  enough 
to  injure  it,  force  the  cocking  piece  back  until  the  safety 
lock  can  be  turned  to  the  vertical  position  with  the  right 
hand;  insert  the  firing  pin  in  the  bolt  and  screw  up  the 
sleeve  (by  turning  it  to  the  right)  until  the  sleeve  lock 
enters  its  notch  on  the  bolt. 

See  that  the  cut-off  is  at  the  center  notch ;  hold  the  piece 
under  floor  plate  in  the  fingers  of  the  left  hand,  the  thumb 
extending  over  the  left  side  of  the  receiver ;  take  bolt 
in  right  hand  with  safety  lock  in  a  vertical  position  and 
safety  lug  up;  press  rear  end  of  follower  down  with 
the  left  thumb  and  push  bolt  into  the  receiver;  lower 
bolt  handle;  turn  safety  lock  and  cut-off  down  to  the  left 
with  the  right  hand. 

54.  What  considerations  should  govern  in  selecting  the 
proper  size  of  aperture  for  the  peep  sight? 

A.  The  aperture  should  be  the  smallest  through  which 
the  target  and  front  sight  can  be  seen  clearly  without 
straining  the  eye.  Too  large  an  aperture  renders  it  dif- 
ficult to  find  the  center  of  it  accurately  and  quickly,  while 
too  small  an  aperture  renders  the  front  sight  and  target 
indistinct. 


The  Service  Rifle  83 

Corrections    Corresponding   to    One  Point   of  the   Wind 

Gauge  or  Scale  and  to  a  Change  in 

Elevation    of   25    Yards 

Correction    corre- 

Correction  caused  sponding   to  a 

Range                            by  m  o  v  i  n  g   the  change   in     eleva- 

eyepiece  one  point  tion    of    25    yards 

100 4.311  0.72405 

200 8.622  1.6189 

300 12.933  2.7701 

400 17.244  4.328 

500 21.555  6.182 

600 25.866  8.542 

700 ; 30.177  11.674 

800 34.488  15.620 

900 38.799  19.769 

1,000 43.110  24.813 

1,100.. 47.421  30.874 

1,200... 51.732  37.097 


Table  Showing  Number  of  Points  of  Deflection  or  Wind- 

age  Necessary   to    Correct  for  a    10-mile-an-hour 

Wind,  Drift  Not  Considered.  (Computed.) 

Direction  of  wind 
Range 
(yards)  III,IX  II,IV  I,V 


100  0.23  0.2  01 

200  .34  .31  .17 

300  .61                  .        .53  .30 

400  .86  .75  .43 

500  1.11  .96  .55 

600  1.39  1.2  .69 

700  1.68  1.45                   .       .84 

800  2.00  1.73  1.00 

900  2.34  2.03  1.17 

1,000  2.67  2.30  1.33 

1,100  3.01  2.61  1.50 

1,200  3.32  2.88  1.66 


84  Small   Arms   Firing*   Regulations 

Drift  with  target  rifles,  model  of  1905  sights  graduated 
for  1906  ammunition. 

Range  (yards)     Total  drift        Drift  corrected  Drift  Deviation  of 

by  sight  leaf      uncorrected  bullet  produced 
(right)       by  a  1-mile  wind 
normal  to  the 
plane  of  fire 
(1)  (2)  (3)  (4)  (5) 


Left 

Right 

Left 

Right 

Inches 

Inches 

Inches 

Inches 

Inches 

Inches 

100 

0.26 

0.26 

0.0 

0.1 

200 

0.42 

0.42 

0.0 

0.3 

300 

0.45 

0.45 

0.0 

0.8 

400 

0.32 

0.32 

0.0 

0.0 

1.5 

500 

0.0 

0.0 

2.4 

600 

0.55 

0.55 

0.0 

3.6 

700 

2.0 

1.4 

0.6 

5.1 

800 

4.5 

2.6 

1.9 

6. 

900 

8.2 

4.2 

4.0 

9.1 

1000 

13.0 

6.3 

6.7 

11.5 

1.100 

20.5 

9.0 

11.5 

14.3 

1,200 

29.3 

12.3 

17.0 

17.2 

In  rapid  fire,  using  the   battle   sight,   the  correct  point  of 
aim,  under  the  figure,  at  the  various  distances  is  as  follows: 

500  Yards     7  inches ;  300  Yards  28  inches ; 

400  Yards  23  inches;  200  Yards  25    inches. 

350  Yards  26  inches ; 


SMALL  ARMS  FIRING  REGULATIONS 


SCHEME  OF  PRELIMINARY  INSTRUCTION 

The  course  herein  prescribed  has  been  arranged  as  follows : 

(a)  Nomenclature  and   care   of  the  rifle, 

(b)  Sighting  drills. 

(c)  Position  and  aiming  drills. 

(d)  Deflection  and  elevation  correction  drills. 

(e)  Gallery  practice. 


Sig-liting-  Drills  ,  85 

(f)  Estimating  distance  drill. 

(g)  Individual  known  distance  firing,  instruction  prac- 
tice. 

(h)     Individual  known  distance,   firing,   record  practice. 

(i)     Long-distance   practice. 

(j)     Practice  with   telescopic  sights. 

(k)     Instruction  combat  practice. 

(1)     Combat  practice. 

(m)     Proficiency  test. 

The  course  of  pistol  firing  includes  the  following: 

(a)  Nomenclature  and  care  of  the  pistol,  general  facts 
and  principles. 

(b)  Position    and    aiming    drills    and    rapid-fire    drills; 
dismounted  and  mounted. 

(c)  Individual   firing,   instruction  practice. 

(d)  Individual  firing,  record  practice. 

SIGHTING  DRILLS 

Value — The  value  of  the  sighting  drills  and  the  position 
and  aiming  drills  can  not  be  too  strongly  emphasized.  By 
means  of  them  the  fundamental  principles  of  shooting  may 
be  inculcated  before  the  soldier  fires  a  shot. 

To  Whom  Given — The  sighting  drills  will  be  given  to 
all  soldiers  who  have  not  qualified  as  "marksman"  or  better 
in  the  preceding  target  year. 

Purpose: 

(a)  To  show  how  to  align  the  sights  properly  on  the 
mark. 

(b)  To  discover  and  demonstrate  errors  in  sighting. 

(c)  To  teach  uniformity  in  sighting. 

Apparatus  and  its  Use — Sighting  Bar  to  consist  of: 

(a)  A  bar  of  wood  about  1  by  2  inches  by  4  feet,  with 
a  thin  slot  1  inch  deep  cut  across  the  edge  about  20  inches 
from  one  end. 

(b)  A  front  sight  of  tin  or  cardboard   YT,  by  3   inches 
tacked  to  the  end  nearer  the  slot  and  projecting  1  inch  above 
bar. 

(c)  An    eyepiece    of    tin    or    cardboard    1    b}'-   3    inches 
tacked  to  the  other  end  of,  and  projecting  1  inch  above,  the 


86  Sighting   Drill 

bar,  with  a  very  small  hole   (0.03  inch)   ^  inch  from  top  of 
part  projecting  above  the  bar. 

(d)  An   open  rear   sight  of  tin   or  cardboard   \l/2  by  3 
inches,  with  a  U-shaped  notch  y^  inch  wide  cut  in  the  middle 
of  one  of  the  long  edges.     This  is  placed  in  the  slot  on  the 
bar.     A  slight   bend   of    the   part    of   the   tin   fitting   in   the 
slot  wiH  give  enough  friction  to  hold  the  sight  in  any  part 
of  slot  in  which  it  is  placed. 

(e)  A  peep  rear  sight  of  tin  or  cardboard  3  by  3  inches, 
with  a  peep  hole  £4  mcn  in  diameter  cut  in  the  center.    This 
replaces  the  open  sight  when  the  peep  sight  is  shown. 

Carefully  blacken  all  pieces  of  tin  or  cardboard  and  the 
top  of  the  bar.  Nail  the  bar  to  a  box  about  1  foot  high 
and  place  on  the  ground,  table,  or  other  suitable  place.  Then 
adjust  the  open  or  peep  rear  sight  in  the  slot  and  direct  the 
bar  upon  a  bull's  eye  (preferably  a  Y  target)  placed  about 
5  yards  from  the  bar.  No  other  than  the  sight  desired  can 
be  seen.  Errors,  etc.,  are  shown  by  manipulating  the  open 
and  peep  rear  sights. 

Sighting  Rest  for  Rifle — Take  an  empty  pistol  ammuni- 
tion box  or  a  similar  well-made  box,  remove  the  top  and 
cut  notches  in  the  ends  to  fit  the  rifle  closely.  Place  the 
rifle  in  these  notches  with  the  trigger  guard  close  to  and 
outside  one  end.  (The  stock  may  be  removed  from  the  rifle 
so  as  to  bring  the  eye  as  near  the  rear  sight  as  in  shooting.) 
Nail  a  plank  (top  of  box  will  do)  to  a  stake  or  wall  about 
12  inches  from  the  ground.  Fasten  a  blank  sheet  of  paper 
in  the  plank.  Place  the  rest  firmly  on  the  ground,  20  or 
30  feet  from  the  plank,  so  that  the  rifle  is  canted  neither  to 
the  right  nor  left — weight  the  box  with  sand  if  necessary — 
and  without  touching  the  rifle  or  rest;  sight  the  rifle  near 
the  center  of  the  blank  sheet  of  paper.  Changes  in  the  line 
of  sight  are  made  by  changing  the  elevation  and  windage. 
Take  the  prone  position  with  elbows  on  the  ground,  hands 
supporting  the  head.  A  soldier  acting  as  marker  is  provided 
with  a  pencil  and  a  small  rod  bearing  a  disk  of  white  card- 
board about  3  inches  in  diameter,  with  a  black  bull's-eye^  (a 
black  paster  is  best)  pierced  in  the  center  with  a  hole  just 
large  enough  to  admit  the  point  of  a  lead  pencil.  The  soldier 
sighting  directs  the  marker  to  move  the  disk  to  the  right, 
left,  higher,  or  lower,  until  the  line  of  aim  is  established, 
when  he  commands  "Mark"  or  "Hold."  At  the  command 
"Mark,"  being  careful  not  to  move  the  disk,  the  marker 


First  Sighting  Exercise  87 

records  through  the  hole  in  its  center  the  position  of  the  disk 
and  then  withdraws  it.  At  the  command  "Hold"  the  marker 
holds  the  disk  carefully  in  place  without  marking  until  the 
position  is  verified  by  the  instructor,  and  the  disks  not  with- 
drawn until  so  directed. 

FIRST  SIGHTING  EXERCISE 

Using  illustrations,  describe  the  normal  sight  and  the  peep 
sight. 

Using  the  sighting  bar,  represent  the  normal  sight  and  the 
peep  sight  and  require  each  man  in  the  squad  to  look  at  them. 

Using  the  sighting  bar,  describe  and  represent  the  usual 
errors  of  sighting  and  require  each  man  in  the  squad  to 
look  at  them. 

SECOND  SIGHTING  EXERCISE 

Using  the  sighting  rest  for  the  rifle,  require  each  man  to 
direct  the  ,marker  to  move  the  disk  until  the  rifle  is  directed 
on  the  bull's-eye  with  the  normal  sight  and  command  "Hold." 
The  instructor  will  verify  this  line  of  sight.  Errors,  if.  any, 
will  be  explained  to  the  soldier  and  another  trial  made.  If 
he  is  still  unable  to  sight  correctly,  the  first  exercise  will 
be  repeated. 

Soldiers  will  sometimes  be  found  who  do  not  know  how 
to  place  the  eye  in  the  line  of  sight;  they  often  look  over 
or  along  one  side  of  the  notch  of  the  rear  sight  and  believe 
that  they  are  aiming  through  the  notch  because  they  see 
it  at  the  same  time  that  they  do  the  front  sight.  This  error 
will  probably  be  made  evident  by  the  preceding  exercise. 
Some  men  in  sighting  will  look  at  the  front  sight  and  not 
at  the  object.  As  this  often  occasions  a  blur,  which  pre- 
vents the  object  from  being  distinctly  seen  and  increases 
both  the  difficulties  and  inaccuracies  of  sighting,  it  should 
be  corrected. 

Repeat  the  above,  using  the  peep  sight. 

THIRD  SIGHTING  EXERCISE 

Using  the  sighting  rest  for  the  rifle,  require  each  man  to 
direct  the  marker  to  move  the  disk  until  the  rifle  is  directed 
on  the  bull's-eye  with  the  normal  sight  and  command  "Mark," 
then,  being  careful  not  to  move  the  rifle  or  sights,  repeat 
the  operation  until  three  marks  have  been  made. 


88  Third  Sighting   Exercise 

(a)  The   Triangle   of    Sighting — Join    the   three    points 
determined  as  above  by  straight  lines,  mark  with  the  soldier's 
name,  and  call  his  attention  to  the  triangle  thus  formed.    The 
shape   and   size   of   this   triangle   will   indicate   the   nature   of 
the  variations  made  in  aiming. 

(b)  Abnormal  Shape  Causes — If  the  triangle  is  obtuse 
angled,    with    its   sides    approaching   the   vertical,   the    soldier 
has   not    taken    a    uniform   amount    of    front    sight.      If   the 
sides  of  the  triangle   are   more  nearly  horizontal  the   errors 
were    probably    caused    by    not    looking    through    the    middle 
of   the   notch   or   not   over   the   top   of   the    front   sight.      If 
any  one  of  the  sides  of  the  triangle  is  longer  than  one-half 
inch,  the  instructor  directs  the  exercise  to  be  repeated,  veri- 
fying  each    sight   and    calling   the   soldier's    attention    to   his 
errors.     The  instructor  will   explcin   that   the   sighting  gains 
in  regularity  as  the  triangle  becomes  smaller. 

(c)  Verifying  the  Triangle — If  the  sides  of  the  triangle 
are   so   small   as   to   indicate    regularity   in   sighting,   the   in- 
structor will  .mark  the  center  of  the  triangle  and  then  place 
the   center   of   the   bull's-eye    on   this   mark.      The   instructor 
will  then  examine  the  position  of  the  bull's-eye  with  refer- 
ence to  the  line  of  sight.    If  the  bull's-eye  is  properly  placed 
with  reference  to  the  line  of  sight,  the  soldier  aims  correctly 
and  with  uniformity.     If  not  so  placed,  he  aims  in  a  regular 
manner  but  with  a  constant  error. 

(d)  Causes    of    Errors — If    the    bull's-eye    is    directly 
above   its   proper  position,   the   soldier   has   taken   in   aiming 
too   little    front   sight,   or   if   directly  below   too   much   front 
sight.     If   directly  to   the   right   or   left,   the   soldier   has   not 
sighted  through  the  center  of  the   rear-sight  notch  and  over 
the  top  of  the  front  sight.    If  to  the  right,  he  has  probably 
either  sighted  along  the  left  of  the   rear  sight  notch  OL   the 
right   side   of   the    front   '-ight   or   has   committed   both   these 
errors.     If  the  bull's-eye  is  too  far  to  the  left,  he  has  prob- 
ai/Iy  sighted  along   the   right   of   the   rear   sight  notch   or   to 
the    left    of  the    front    sight,    or  has    combined  both    these 
errors. 

If  the  bull's-eye  is  placed  with  reference  to  its  proper  posi- 
tion diagonally  above  and  to  the  right,  the  soldier  has 
probably  combined  the  errors  which  placed  it  too  high  and 
too  far  to  the  right.  Any  other  diagonal  position  would  be 
produced  by  a  similar  combination  of  vertical  and  horizontal 
errors. 


Fourth  Sighting1  Exercise  89 

As  the  errors  thus  shown  are  committed  when  the  rifle  is 
fixed  in  position,  while  that  of  the  bull's-eye  or  target  is 
altered,  the  effect  will  'be  directly  opposite  to  the  changes 
in  the  location  of  a  hit  in  actual  fire,  occasioned  by  the  same 
errors,  when  the  target  will  be  fixed  and  the  rifle  moved  in 
aiming. 

After  the  above  instruction  has  been  given  to  one  man,  the 
line  of  sight  will  be  slightly  changed  by  moving  the  sighting 
rest  or  by  changing  the  elevation  and  windage,  and  the  exer- 
cises similarly  repeated  with  the  other  men  in  the  squad. 

Repeat  the  third  sighting  exercises,  using  the  peep  sight. 

FOURTH  SIGHTING  EXERCISE 

This  exercise  is  a  demonstration  of  the  effect  of  canting 
the  piece.  The  soldier  must  be  impressed  with  the  necessity 
of  keeping  the  sights  vertical  when  aiming,  and  not  canting 
the  piece  to  the  right  or  left.  Explain  to  the  soldier  that  if 
the  piece  is  canted  to  the  right,  the  bullet  will  strike  to  the 
right  and  below  the  point  aimed  at,  even  though  the  rifle  be 
otherwise  correctly  aimed  and  the  sights  correctly  set. 
Similarly,  if  the  piece  is  canted  to  the  left,  the  bullet  will 
strike  to  the  left  and  low.  This  can  be  explained  by  show- 
ing that  the  elevation  fixes  the  height  of  the  point  where 
the  bullet  will  hit  the  target,  and  that  the  windage  fixes  the 
point  to  the  right  or  left ;  i.  e.,  the  elevation  gives  vertical 
effects  and  the  windage  horizontal  effects.  Let  a  pencil  (or 
rod)  held  vertical  represent  the  elevation;  now  if  the  pencil 
is  turned  to  the  right  90,  or  horizontal,  all  of  the  elevation 
has  been  taken  off,  causing  the  shot  to  strike  low  and  changed 
into  windage,  causing  the  shot  to  strike  to  the  right. 

This  effect  may  be  demonstrated  as  follows :  Use  the 
sighting  rest  with  the  rifle  firmly  held  in  the  notches,  the  bolt 
removed.  Paste  a  black  paster  near  the  center  of  the  bot- 
tom line  of  the  target.  Sight  the  rifle  on  this  mark,  using 
about  2,000  yards  elevation,  then,  being  careful  not  to  move 
the  rifle,  look  through  the  bore  and  direct  the  marker  to 
move  the  disk  until  the  bull's-eye  is  in  the  center  of  the 
field  of  view  and  command  "Mark."  Next  turn  the  rest 
with  the  rifle  on  its  side,  and  with  the  same  elevation  sight 
on  the  same  paster  as  above,  then,  being  careful  not  to  move 
the  rifle,  look  through  the  bore  and  again  direct  the  marker 
to  move  the  disk  until  the  bull's-eye  is  in  the  center  of  the 
field  of  view  and  command  "Mark."  Not  considering  the 


90  Position  and   Aiming"  Drills 

fall  of  the  bullet,  the  first  mark  represents  the  point  struck 
with  the  sight  vertical,  the  second  mark  represents  the  point 
struck,  low  and  to  the  right,  using  the  same  elevation  and 
the  same  point  of  aim  when  the  piece  is  canted  90°  to  the 
right. 

POSITION  AND  AIMING  DRILLS 

Purpose — These  drills  are  intended  to  so  educate  the 
muscles  of  the  arm  and  body  that  the  piece,  during  the  act 
of  aiming,  shall  be  held  without  restraint,  and  during  the 
operation  of  firing  shall  not  be  deflected  from  the  target  by 
any  convulsive  or  improper  movement  of  the  trigger  or  of 
the  body,  arms,  or  hands.  They  also  establish  between  the  hand 
and  eye  prompt  and  intimate  connection  as  will  insure  that 
the  finger  shall  act  upon  the  trigger,  giving  the  final  pres- 
sure at  the  exact  moment  when  the  top  of  the  front  sight 
is  seen  to  be  directed  upon  the  mark. 

The  fact,  though  simple,  cannot  be  too  strongly  impressed 
upon  the  recruit  that  if,  at  the  moment  of  discharge,  the 
piece  is  properly  supported  and  correctly  aimed,  the  mark  will 
surely  be  hit.  Since  any  intelligent  man  can  be  taught  to 
aim  correctly  and  hold  the  sights  aligned  upon  the  mark  with 
a  fair  amount  of  steadiness,  it  follows  that  bad  shooting 
must  necessarily  arise  from  causes  other  than  bad  aiming. 
The  chief  of  these  causes  is  known  to  be  the  deflection  given 
to  the  rifle  when  it  is  discharged,  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
soldier,  at  the  moment  of  firing,  instead  of  squeezing  the 
trigger,  jerks  it.  This  convulsive  action  is  largely  due  to 
lack  of  familiarity  with  the  methods  of  firing  and  to  a  con- 
strained position  of  the  muscles  of  the  body,  arm,  and  hands, 
which  constrained  position  it  is  the  purpose  of  the  position 
and  aiming  drills  to  correct. 

To  become  a  good  shot,  constant,  careful,  and  patient 
practice  is  required.  Systematic  aiming  and  squeezing  the 
trigger  will  do  much  to  make  a  rifleman.  The  ,men  will  be 
taught  to  take  advantage  of  every  opportunity  for  practic- 
ing aiming,  and  squeezing  the  trigger.  For  this  purpose  the 
barracks  and  ground  in  the  vicinity  of  the  barracks  should 
be  furnished  with  aiming  targets,  which  the  men  will  be 
encouraged  to  use  at  odd  moments,  as  when  waiting  for  a 
formation  or  during  a  rest.  At  drill  the  soldier  will  be 
cautioned  never  to  squeeze  the  trigger  without  selecting  an 
object  and  taking  careful  aim.  When  on  the  range  waiting 


Position  and   Aiming*  Drills  91 

for  his  turn  to  fire,  the  soldier  should  use  part  of  his  time 
in  position  and  aiming  exercises,  aiming  at  the  target  or  at 
objects  outside  of  the  range,  and  he  should  be  made  to 
understand  that  this  practice  previous  to  firing  will  tend  to 
prevent  nervousness  and  will  have  a  marked  effect  upon  his 
score. 

To  Whom  Given — The  position  and  aiming  drills  will 
be  given  to  all  soldiers  who<  have  not  qualified  as  "marksman" 
or  better  in  the  preceding  target  year.  Some  practice  in  these 
drills  (especially  in  the  trigger  squeeze  exercise)  is  recom- 
mended for  those  who  have  qualified  as  "marks,man"  or 
better.  The  amount  to  be  given  is  left  to  the  discretion  of 
the  company  commander. 

Drills:  General  Instructions — These  drills  are  divided 
into  four  progressive  exercises.  The  first  exercise  teaches 
the  position;  the  second  exercise  teaches  the  position  and 
the  aim;  the  third  exercise  teaches  the  aim  and  the  manner 
of  squeezing  the  trigger;  and  the  fourth  exercise  teaches  the 
methods  of  rapid  fire.  These  exercises  should  be  taught  by 
the  numbers  at  first;  when  fully  understood,  without  num- 
bers. 

To  correct  any  tendency  to  cant  the  piece,  the  rear  sight 
will  be  raised.  A  black  paster  at  which  to  aim  will  be  placed 
on  the  wall  opposite  each  man.  The  squad  being  formed  in 
single  rank  with  an  interval  of  1  yard  between  files,  the 
instructor  directs  the  men  to  take  the  position  of  "Ready," 
except  that  the  position  of  the  feet  will  be  such  as  to  insure 
the  greatest  firmness  and  steadiness  of  the  body.  The  in- 
structor then  cautions  "Position  and  aiming  drill." 

The  exercise  which  is  being  taught  should  be  repeated  fre- 
quently and  ,made  continuous.  The  instructor  prefaces  the 
preparatory  command  by  "Continue  the  motion,"  or  "At  will," 
and  gives  the  command  "Halt"  at  the  conclusion  of  the 
exercise,  when  the  soldier  will  return  to  the  position  of 
"Ready."  Or  the  soldier  may  be  made  to  repeat  the  first  and 
second  motions  by  the  command  "One,"  "Two,"  the  exercise 
concluding  with  the  command  "Halt." 

Care  should  be  taken  by  the  instructor  not  to  make  the 
position  and  aiming  drills  tedious.  Thirty  minutes  daily 
should  be  spent  in  this  practice  during  the  period  of  pre- 
liminary instruction.  After  gallery  practice  is  taken  up,  how- 
ever, ^five  or  ten 'minutes  daily  should  be  sufficient  for  these 
exercises. 


92  Position  Exercise 

In  order  that  the  instructor  may  readily  detect  and  correct 
errors,  the  squads  for  these  drills  should  not  consist  of  more 
than  eight  men. 

The  instructor  should  avoid  holding  the  squad  in  tiresome 
positions  while  making  explanations  or  correcting  errors. 

POSITION  EXERCISE 

The  instructor  commands:  1.  Position.  2.  Exercise.  At 
the  last  command,  without  moving  the  body  or  eyes,  raise  the 
rifle  smartly  to  the  front  of  the  right  shoulder  to  the  full 
extent  of  the  left  arm,  elbow  inclined  downward,  the  barrel 
nearly  horizontal,  muzzle  slightly  depressed,  heel  of  the  butt 
on  a  line  with  the  top  of  the  shoulder. 

(Two) — Bring  the  piece  smartly  against  the  hollow  of 
the  shoulder,  without  permitting  the  shoulder  to  give  way, 
and  press  the  rifle  against  it,  mainly  with  the  right  hand,  only 
slightly  with  the  left,  the  forefinger  of  the  right  hand  resting 
lightly  against  the  trigger,  the  rifle  inclined  neither  to  the 
right  nor  left. 

(Three)     Resume  the  position  of  "Ready." 

Remarks — The  instructor  should  especially  notice  the 
position  of  each  soldier  in  this  exercise,  endeavoring  to  give 
each  man  an  easy  and  natural  position.  He  should  see  that 
the  men  avoid  drawing  in  the  stomach,  raising  the  breast, 
or  bending  the  small  of  the  back. 

The  butt  of  the  piece  must  be  pressed  firmly,  but  not  too 
tightly,  into  the  hollow  of  the  shoulder  and  not  against  the 
muscles  of  the  upper  arm.  If  held  too  tightly,  the  pulsations 
of  the  body  will  be  communicated  to  the  piece;  if  too  loosely, 
the  recoil  will  bruise  the  shoulder.  If  only  the  heel  or  toe 
touches  the  hollow  of  the  shoulder,  the  recoil  may  throw  the 
muzzle  down  or  up,  affecting  the  position  of  the  hit.  While 
both  arms  are  used  to  press  the  piece  to  the  shoulder,  the  left 
arm  should  be  used  to  direct  the  piece  and  the  sight  fore- 
finger must  be  left  free  to  squeeze  the  trigger. 

AIMING  EXERCISE 

The  instructor  will  first  direct  the  sights  to  be  adjusted  for 
the  lowest  elevation  and  subsequently  for  the  different  longer 
ranges. 

The  instructor  commands :     1.   Aiming.     2.  Exercise. 


Aiming-  Exercise  93 

At  the  last  command  execute  the  first  and  second  motion 
of  the  position  exercise. 

(Two)  Bend  the  head  a  little  to  the  right,  the  cheek 
resting  against  the  stock,  the  left  eye  closed,  the  right  eye 
looking  through  the  notch  of  the  rear  sight  at  a  point  slightly 
below  the  mark. 

(Three)  Draw  a  moderately  long  breath,  let  a  portion 
of  it  escape,  then,  with  the  lungs  in  a  state  of  rest,  slowly 
raise  the  rifle  with  the  left  hand,  being  careful  not  to  incline 
the  sight  to  either  side,  until  the  line  of  sight  is  directly  on 
the  mark;  hold  the  rifle  steadily  directed  on  the  mark  for 
x  moment;  then,  without  command  and  just  before  the  power 
to  hold  the  rifle  steadily  is  lost,  drop  the  rifle  to  the  position 
of  "Ready"  and  resume  the  breathing. 

Remarks — Some  riflemen  prefer  to  extend  the  left  arm. 
Such  a  position  gives  greater  control  over  the  rifle  when 
firing  in  a  strong  wind  or  at  a  moving  object.  It  also  pos- 
sesses advantages  when  a  rapiH  as  well  as  accurate  delivery 
of  fire  is  desired.  Whatever  the  position,  whether  standing, 
kneeling,  sitting,  or  prone,  the  piece  should  rest  on  the  palm 
of  the  left  hand,  never  on  the  tips  of  the  fingers,  and  should 
be  firmly  grasped  by  all  the  fingers  and  the  thumb. 

The  eye  may  be  brought  to  the  line  of  sight  either  by 
lowering  the  head  or  by  raising  the  shoulders ;  it  is  best  to 
combine  somewhat  these  methods ;  the  shoulder  to  be  well 
raised  by  raising  the  right  elbow  and  holding  it  well  to  the 
front  and  at  right  angles  to  the  body. 

If  the  shoulder  is  not  raised,  it  will  be  necessary  for  the 
soldier  to  lower  the  head  to  the  front  in  order  to  bring  the 
eye  in  to  the  line  of  sight.  Lowering  the  head  too  far  to  the 
front  brings  it  near  the  right  hand,  which  grasps  the  stock. 
When  the  piece  is  discharged,  this  hand  is  carried  by  the 
recoil  to  the  rear  and,  when  the  head  is  in  this  position,  may 
strike  against  the  nose  or  mouth.  This  often  happens  in 
practice,  and  as  a  result  of  this  blow  often  repeated  many 
men  become  gun-shy,  or  flinch,  or  close  their  eyes  at  the 
moment  of  firing.  Much  bad  shooting,  ascribed  to  other 
causes,  is  really  due  to  this  fault.  Raising  the  right  elbow 
at  right  angles  to  the  body  elevates  the  right  shoulder,  and 
lifts  the  piece  so  that  it  is  no  longer  necessary  to  incline  the 
head  materially  to  the  front  in  order  to  lo-ok  along  the  sights. 

As  the  length  of  the  soldier's  neck  determines  greatly  the 

:act  method   of  taking  the   proper  position,   the   instructor 


r 


94  Trigger-Squeeze  Exercise 

will  be  careful  to  see  that  the  position  is  taken  without  re- 
straint. 

As  changes  in  the  elevation  of  the  rear  sight  will  necessi- 
tate a  corresponding  change  in  the  position  of  the  soldier's 
head  when  aiming,  the  exercise  should  not  be  held  with  the 
sight  adjusted  for  the  longer  ranges  until  the  men  have  been 
practiced  with  the  sights  as  the  latter  would  generally  be 
employed  for  offhand  firing. 

The  soldier  must  be  cautioned  that  while  raising  the  line 
of  sight  to  the  mark  he  must  fix  his  eyes  on  the  mark  and 
not  on  the  front  sight;  the  latter  can  then  be  readily  brought 
into  the  line  joining  the  rear-sight  notch  and  mark.  If  this 
plan  be  not  followed,  when  firing  is  held  on  the  range  at  long 
distances  the  mark  will  generally  appear  blurred  and  indis- 
tinct. The  front  sight  will  always  be  plainly  seen,  even 
though  the  eye  is  not  directed  particularly  upon  it. 

The  rifle  must  be  raised  slowly,  without  jerk,  and  its 
motion  stopped  gradually.  In  retaining  it  directed  at  the 
mark,  care  (must  be  taken  not  to  continue  the  aim  after 
steadiness  is  lost ;  this  period  will  probably  be  found  to  be 
short  at  first,  but  will  quickly  lengthen  with  practice.  No 
effort  should  be  made  to  prolong  it  beyond  the  time  that 
breathing  can  be  easily  restrained.  Each  soldier  will  de- 
termine for  himself  the  proper  time  for  discontinuing  the 
aim. 

The  man  must  be  cautioned  not  to  hold  the  breath  too  l-ong, 
as  a  trembling  of  the  body  will  result  in  many  cases. 

Some  riflemen  prefer,  in  aiming,  to  keep  both  eyes  open 
but,  unless  the  habit  is  fixed,  the  soldier  should  be  instructed 
to  close  the  left  eye. 


TRIGGER-SQUEEZE  EXERCISE 

The  instructor  commands:  1.  Trigger  squeeze.  2.  Ex- 
ercise. At  the  command  Exercise,  the  soldier  will  execute 
the  first  .motion  of  the  aiming  exercise. 

(Two)     The  second  motion  of  the  aiming  exercise. 

(Three)  Draw  a  moderately  long  breath,  let  a  portion 
of  it  escape,  hold  the  breath  and  slowly  raise  the  rifle  with 
the  left  hand  until  the  line  of  sight  is  on  the  mark,  being 
careful  not  to  incline  the  sights  to  either  side.  Contract  the 
trigger  finger  gradually,  slowly  and  steadily  increasing  the 
pressure  on  the  trigger,  while  the  aim  is  being  perfected; 


Rapid  Fire  Exercise  95 

continue  the  gradual  increase  of  pressure  required  to  release 
the  point  of  the  sear,  can  be  given  almost  insensibly  and  with- 
out causing  any  deflection  of  the  rifle.  Continue  the  aim  a 
moment  after  the  release  of  the  firing  pin,  observe  if  any 
change  has  been  made  in  the  direction  of  the  line  of  sight, 
and  then  resume  the  position  of  "Ready,"  cocking  the  piece 
by  raising  and  lowering  the  bolt  handle. 

Remarks — Poor  shooting  is  often  the  result  of  lack  of 
proper  coordination  of  holding  the  breath,  the  maximum 
steadiness  of  aim,  and  the  squeeze  of  the  trigger.  By  fre- 
quent practice  in  this  exercise  each  man  may  come  to  know 
the  exact  instant  his  firing  pin  will  be  released.  He  must 
be  taught  to  hold  the  breath,  bring  the  sights  to  bear  upon 
the  mark,  and  squeeze  the  trigger  all  at  the  same  time. 

The  Trigger  Squeeze — The  trigger  should  be  squeezed, 
not  pulled,  the  hand  being  closed  upon  itself  as  a  sponge  is 
squeezed,  the  forefinger  sharing  in  this  movement.  The  fore- 
finger should  be  placed  as  far  around  the  trigger  as  to  press 
it  with  the  second  joint.  By  practice  the  soldier  becomes 
familiar  with  the  trigger  squeeze  of  his  rifle,  and  knowing 
this,  he  is  able  to  judge  at  any  time,  within  limits,  what  ad- 
ditional pressure  is  required  for  its  discharge.  By  constant 
repetition  of  this  exercise  he  should  be  able  finally  to  squeeze 
the  trigger  to  a  certain  point  beyond  which  the  slightest 
movement  will  release  the  sear.  Having  squeezed  the  trigger 
to  this  point,  the  aim  is  corrected  and,  when  true,  the  ad- 
ditional pressure  is  applied  and  the  discharge  follows. 

RAPID-FIRE  EXERCISE 

Object — The  object  of  this  exercise  is  to  teach  the 
soldier  to  aim  quickly  and  at  the  same  time1  accurately,  in  all 
the  positions  he  will  be  called  upon  to  assume  in  range  prac- 
tice. 

The  instructor  commands:  1.  Rapid-fire  exercise.  2.  Com- 
'mence  Firing.  At  the  first  command  the  first  and  second 
motions  of  the  trigger-squeeze  exercise  are  performed.  At 
the  second  command  the  soldier  performs  the  third  motion  of 
the  trigger-squeeze  exercise,  squeezing  the  trigger  without 
disturbing  the  aim  or  the  position  of  the  piece,  but  at  the 
same  time  without  undue  deliberation.  He  then,  without 
removing  the  rifle  from  the  shoulder,  holding  the  piece  in 
position  with  the  left  hand,  grasps  the  handle  of  the  bolt 


96  General  Remarks  on  the  Preceding-  Drills 

with  the  right  hand,  rapidly  draws  back  the  bolt,  closes  the 
chamber,  aims,  and  again  squeezes  the  trigger.  This  move- 
ment is  repeated  until  the  trigger  has  been  squeezed  five 
times,  when,  without  command,  the  piece  is  brought  back  to 
the  position  of  "Ready." 

When  the  soldier  has  acquired  so,me  facility  in  this  exer- 
cise, he  will  be  required  to  repeat  the  movement  ten  times, 
and  finally,  by  using  dummy  cartridges  he  may  by  degrees, 
gain  the  necessary  quickness  and  dexterity  for  the  execution 
of  the  rapid  fire  required  in  range  firing. 

Methods — The  methods  of  taking  position  of  aiming, 
and  of  squeezing  the  trigger,  taught  in  the  preceding  exer- 
cise, should  be  carried  out  in  the  rapid-fire  exercise,  with 
due  attention  to  all  details  taught  therein ;  the  details  being 
carried  out  as  prescribed  except  that  greater  promptness  is 
necessary.  In  order  that  any  tendency  on  the  part  of  the 
recruit  to  slight  the  movements  of  aiming  and  of  trigger 
squeeze  shall  be  avoided,  the  rapid-fire  exercise  will  not  be 
taught  until  the  recruit  is  thoroughly  drilled  and  familiar 
with  the  preceding  exercise.  The  recruit  will  be  instructed 
that  with  practice  in  this  class  of  fire  the  trigger  can  be 
squeezed  promptly  without  deranging  the  piece. 

Repetition — If  the  recruit  seems  to  execute  the  exer- 
cise hurriedly  or  carelessly,  the  instructor  will  require  him 
to  repeat  it  at  a  slower  rate. 

Manipulation  of  the  Breech  Mechanism — To  hold  the 
piece  to  the  shoulder  and,  at  the  same^  time,  manipulate  the 
breech  mechanis,m  with  the  proper  facility  are  learned  only 
after  much  practice.  Some  riflemen,  especially  men  who  shoot 
from  the  left  shoulder,  find  it  easier,  in  rapid  firing  to  drop 
the  piece  to  the  position  of  load  after  each  shot.  While  at 
first  trial  this  method  may  seem  easier,  it  is  believed  that, 
with  practice,  the  advantage  of  the  former  method  will  be 
apparent. 

GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  THE  PRECEDING 
DRILLS 

The  importance  of  sighting  and  position  and  aiming  drills 
can  not  be  too  persistently  impressed  upon  the  soldier.  If 
these  exercises  are  carefully  practiced  the  soldier,  before  fir- 
ing a  shot  at  a  target,  will  have  learned  to  correctly  aim  his 


Deflection  ana  Elevation  Correction  Drills  97 

piece,  to  hold  his  rifle  steadily,  to  squeeze  the  trigger  pro- 
perly, to  assume  that  position  best  adapted  to  the  particular 
conformation  of  his  body,  and  will  have  acquired  the  quick- 
ness in  manual  dexterity  required  for  handling  the  piece 
in  rapid  fire.  This  knowledge  can  not  be  successfully  ac- 
quired upon  the  target  ground.  At  that  place  the  time  that 
can  be  given  to  instruction  is  limited  and  should  be  devoted 
to  the  higher  branches  of  the  subject.  Even,  if  the  desired 
amount  of  attention  could  be  given  to  each  soldier,  never- 
theless, from  the  circumstances  of  the  firing,  his  errors  can 
be  readily  determined.  It  is  more  than  likely  that  the  soldier 
would  never  discover  the  reasons  for  his  failures  and  would, 
therefore,  be  unable  to  properly  correct  them. 

Under  such  conditions  the  knowledge  that  he  may  have 
of  the  many  other  requisites  for  good  marksmanship  can 
not  be  utilized  to  full  advantage,  and,  in  fact,  can  but  in  a 
limited  degree  compensate  for  the  neglect  of  these  first  prin- 
ciples and  for  the  failure  to  lay,  by  assiduously  practicing 
them,  the  only  firm  foundation,  for  future  proficiency. 

If,  in  the  instruction  practice  on  the  range,  it  is  found  that 
the  soldier  makes  errors  in  his  position,  he  should  be  required 
to  stop  firing  and  to  practice  the  third  exercise  for  10  or  15 
minutes.  He  should  be  encouraged  to  go  through  these  ex- 
ercises frequently  at  other  than  drill  hours,  care  being  taken 
that,  in  the  aiming  and  trigger-squeeze  exercises,  he  always 
has  some  definite  object  for  a  mark. 

DEFLECTION  AND   ELEVATION  CORRECTION 
DRILLS 

Sight  Correction— The  soldier  may  find  when  firing  at  a 
target  that  the  first  shot  has  missed  the  bull's-eye  or  figure, 
and  in  order  to  cause  the  second  to  hit,  two  methods  may  be 
used :  The  point  of  aim  may  be  changed  or  the  sights  may 
be  moved  and  the  same  point  be  aimed  at.  In  order  to  do 
accurate  shooting  it  is  essential  to  have  a  well-defined  mark 
at  which  to  aim;  consequently,  except  for  very  slight  correc- 
tions, the  method  of  moving  the  sights,  involving  changes  in 
elevation  and  windage,  is  devised. 

Elevation — The  instructor  wrill  show  the  men  the  gradu- 
ations on  the  rear-sight  leaf,  and  will  explain  to  them  the 
value  of  the  different  divisions.  He  will  explain  how  to  ad- 
just their  sights  for  different  distances.  He  will  make  it 


98  Deflection  and  Elevation  Correction  Drills 

clear  that  raising  or  lowering  the  slide  on  the  rear-sight  leaf 
has  the  effect  of  raising  or  lowering  the  point  struck.  The 
amount  of  change  which  a  given  amount  of  elevation  will 
cause  in  the  point  struck  varies  with  the  range  and  with  the 
rifle  and  the  ammunition  used. 

Deflection — The  instructor  will  explain  how  to  move 
the  movable  base  by  use  of  the  windage  screw;  that  the 
graduations  on  the  rear  end  of  the  movable  base  are  for 
convenience  in  setting  the  sights  and  applying  corrections; 
that  each  division  is  called  a  point  of  windage;  that  turning 
the  movable  base  of  the  rear  sight  to  the  right  or  left  changes 
the  point  struck  to  the  right  or  left;  that,  to  overcome  the 
drifting  effect  of  a  wind  from  the  right,  the  movable  base 
must  be  moved  to  the  right,  and,  if  the  wind  be  from  the  left, 
the  movable  sight  base  must  be  moved  to  the  left. 

Adjusting  the  Sights — Elevation — The  graduations 
on  the  rear  sight  will  be  found  correct  for  but  few  rifles. 
This  is  due  to  slight  variations  in  the  parts  of  the  rifle, 
especially  the  barrel,  which  occur  under  the  most  exact 
methods  of  fabrications.  Not  all  rifles  are  tested  at  the 
arsenal,  and  when  the  graduations  for  the  rear  sight  have 
been  experimentally  determined,  they  are  correct  only  for 
the  particular  conditions  existing  when  they  were  so  deter- 
mined. The  correction  necessary  for  each  particular  rifle  at 
any  range  is  found  by  shooting  it  at  that  range,  and  is  con- 
stant with  the  sa,me  ammunition  and  when  firing  under  the 
same  conditions.  If  no  correction  is  necessary,  the  rifle  is 
said  to  "shoot  on  the  mark." 

Exercise — To  give  the  soldier  practice  in  correcting 
elevation  and  windage,  a  target  should  be  placed  on  the  wall 
facing  the  squad  and  a  blank  paster  attached  a  foot  or  more 
from  the  ^bull's-eye,  at  first  directly  above  or  below  the  bull's- 
eye,  then  on  a  horizontal  line  with  it,  and  finally  in  an  oblique 
direction. 

For  this  drill  the  rifle  of  each  soldier  who  has  not  deter- 
mined by  actual  firing  the  "zero"  and  the  correct  elevations 
for  the  different  ranges  will  be  assumed  to  shoot  on  the 
mark  and  to  require  no  windage. 

Announce  the  range  and  tell  the  men  that  the  paster  repre- 
sents the  position  of  an  assumed  hit  and  require  each  man 
to '  correct  his  sight  so  as  to  bring  the  next  hit  into  the. 
bull's-eye.  This  exercise  should  be  repeated  daily  during 


Deflection  and  Elevation  Correction  Drills  99 

gallery  practice,  using  the  A,  B,  C,  and  D  targets,  until  the 
men  have  acquired  accuracy  in  fnaking  corrections  for  all 
ranges  up  to  1,000  yards. 

When  the  men  have  learned  how  to  adjust  their  sights, 
this  exercise  should  be  carried  on  in  connection  with  gallery 
practice.  The  rear  sight  on  each  rifle  is  given  an  incorrect 
setting  in  elevation  and  windage  by  the  instructor,  and  the 
soldier  required  to  find  the  correct  adjustment  by  firing. 

DEFINITIONS 

Danger  Space:  That  portion  of  the  terrain  which  is 
rendered  dangerous  by  a  cone  of  fire  striking  it  or  passing  so 
close  to  it  that  men  within  it  are  in  danger  of  being  hit. 

Cone  of  Fire:  A  group  of  trajectories  from  a  group  of 
rifles  fired  at  a  common  target,  with  a  uniform  rear  sight 
elevation. 

Note — When  the  cone  is  concentrated,  greater  accuracy 
in  estimating  of  range  is  necessary.  With  accurate  estima- 
tion however,  fire  superiority  is  more  quickly  gained.  When 
the  cone  is  unduly  dispersed  the  danger  space  is  increased 
but  objects  within  it  are  in  less  danger  of  being  hit.  The 
cone  should  have  little  depth  and  should  cover  the  entire 
extent  of  the  target.  In  order  to  more  quickly  reach  a  target 
to  which  the  range  is  not  known  the  use  of  combined  sights 
is  employed.  (The  platoons  taking  different  sight  eleva- 
tions.) When  a  well  trained  unit  is  firing  it  should  be  well 
handled  or  poor  results  will  follow,  due  to  poor  control  and 
direction. 

Trajectory:  The  path  which  a  bullet  or  projectile  fol- 
lows in  its  flight. 

Fire  Discipline:  The  quality  possessed  by  a  well  trained 
fire  unit  which  enables  it  to  respond  to  the  will  of  its  com- 
mander under  all  circumstances. 

Fire  Control:  The  actual  control  exercised  by  the  com- 
mander of  a  fire  unit  in  causing  it  to  commence,  cease  and 
change  the  direction  of  its  cone  of  fire  at  his  will.  This  per- 
tains more  particularly  to  the  platoon  commanders. 

Fire  Direction:  The  direction  for  the  employment  of 
fire,  consisting  of  the  assignment  of  sectors,  targets,  ob- 
jectives and  the  arrangement  for  fire  upon  dead  spaces  in 
adjacent  sectors,  etc. 


100  Duties  of  Company  Commander 

Regular  Season:  A  period  of  two  months  annually  set 
aside  by  department  commanders  for  the  conduct  of  target 
practice. 

Supplementary  Season:  A  period  of  the  year  midway 
between  regular  seasons  for  conducting  rifle  practice  for 
those  who  have  joined  since  the  regular  season  or  who  were 
not  able  to  participate  therein.  It  is  for  the  purpose  of  pre- 
venting an  accumulation  of  men  in  companies  who  have  had 
no  rifle  practice. 

DUTIES  OF  COMPANY  COMMANDER  IN  CON- 
NECTION WITH  TARGET  PRACTICE 

The  commander  is  directly  responsible  for  the  efficiency 
of  his  men  in  rifle  practice — he  is  the  chief  instructor  for  his 
company. 

METHODS  OF  RANGE  FINDING 

By  Sound:  Take  number  of  seconds  between  actual 
discharge  and  the  hearing  of  the  sound  of  discharge  and 
multiply  by  366.  This  method  is  of  little  use  in  battle. 

By  Trial  Volleys:  The  effect  of  a  sheaf  of  bullets  strik- 
ing together  on  dry,  bare  ground  will  be  easily  seen.  On 
unfavorable  ground  however,  its  value  is  doubtful. 

By  Estimation:  Have  the  most  expert  estimators  make 
estimates  and  take  their  mean.  This  is  an  excellent  and  most 
commonly  used  method. 

By  Instrument:  The  Weldon  range  finder  gives  very 
good  results  in  the  hands  of  well  trained  men.  Without  well 
trained  men  however,  its  use  is  not  recommended.  The  new 
range  finder  is  excellent  and  can  be  read  with  little  instruc- 
tion. The  troops  are  not  all  equipped  with  them  yet.  (It  is 
made  in  Germany.) 

USE  OF  THE  SLING 

The  sling  shall  be  used  in  connection  with  the  arm  only. 
Neither  end  shall  be  passed  through  a  swivel,  no  knots 
may  be  tied  in  it.  It  will  not  be  altered  in  any  way. 


Prone   Position  ,    101 

PRONE  POSITION 

Only  as  prescribed.  Required  that  the  soldier  lie  on  his 
front,  with  piece  not  touching  the  ground,  no  rest  permitted 
except  as  specified  below. 

REST  FOR  RIFLE 

The  rest  is  prescribed  for  use  in  firing  at  six  hundred  yards 
and  is  not  .optional.  The  rifle  or  hand  supporting  it  must 
rest  on  the  sand  bag  provided.  In  combat  exercises  and  field 
firing  the  men  use  any  available  rest. 

INSTRUCTION  PRACTICE 

The  use  of  streamers,  anemometers  and  other  devices  and 
also  coaching,  are  necessary  to  impart  instruction 

RECORD  PRACTICE 

In  record  practice  no  streamers  or  other  devices  are  per- 
mitted and  coaching  is  absolutely  prohibited.  No  advice  or 
assistance  will  be  given  the  soldier  after  he  goes  to  his  firing 
point. 

SIGHTING  SHOTS 

When  prescribed,  sighting  shots  will  be  taken  and  can  not 
be  omitted.  When  for  any  reason  not  the  fault -of  the  soldier 
he  is  unable  or  not  permitted  to  complete  the  firing  at  a  range 
where  sighting  shots  are  prescribed,  he  will  be  allowed  sight- 
ing shots  before  the  completion  of  the  firing  at  that  range. 

UNIFORM 

For  target  practice  the  service  uniform  will  be  worn.  The 
commanding  officer  may  direct  that  the  blouse  be  not  worn. 
The  field  belt  is  also  worn.  One  suspender  may  be  slipped 
from  the  shoulder  when  firing. 

PREVENTING  FRAUD  IN  MARKING  AND  SCOR- 
ING 

In  record  practice  there  shall  be  an  officer  in  the  pits  for 
each  two  targets,  where  the  pits  are  continuous,  and  in  sepa- 
rate pits  one  officer  for  each  target. 


102  Marking- 

Non-commissioned  officers  as  scorers  and  in  charge  of  the 
target  details  are  taken  from  companies  other  than  those 
firing  on  the  targets. 

When  there  is  but  one  company  present  requiring  the  mark- 
ing and  scoring  to  be  done  by  members  of  the  same  com- 
pany, the  company  officers  will  cause  each  day's  firing  to 
commence  with  fresh  paper  targets,  and  will  cause  a  record 
to  be  kept  at  each  firing  point  of  the  number  of  5's,  4's,  3's 
and  2's  marked  on  the  corresponding  target.  After  the  firing 
is  over  an  officer  will  count  the  number  of  actual  hits  made 
in  the  different  divisions  of  the  target  and  compare  the  re- 
sults with  the  record  kept  at  the  firing  point.  In  the  event 
of  any  considerable  discrepancies  the  firing  must  be  repeated. 

MARKING 

Hits  on  the  wrong  target  count  as  misses. 

In  rapid  fire  if  there  are  .more  than  ten  hits  on  one  target 
the  firing  is  repeated  for  that  target. 

In  slow  fire  when  two  hits  appear  on  one  target  the  firer 
is  entitled  to  that  with  the  higher  value. 

Glancing  or  ricochet  hits  count. 

RANGE  OFFICER 

The  range  officer  must  not  be  confused  with  the  officer  in 
charge  of  firing.  He  prepares  the  range  for  the  firing,  and 
has  charge  of  all  range  details  of  men  and  range  material. 
He  places  everything  in  readiness  for  the  firing  each  day  and 
makes  out  the  schedule  of  firing  and  assignments  of  targets. 
He  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  control  of  the  firing  on  the 
range,  unless  in  addition  to  his  status  as  range  officer  he 
happens  to  be  the  officer  in  charge  of  firing. 

OFFICER  IN  CHARGE  OF  FIRING 

He  has  charge  of  the  firing,  and  supervises  its  conduct.  He 
coordinates  the  work  of  the  different  organizations  and  pre- 
vents as  far  as  possible  waste  of  time  and  infractions  of 
regulations,  etc. 

NON-COMMISSIONED   OFFICER   IN   CHARGE 
OF  PITS 

A  non-commissioned  officer  is  detailed  on  special  duty  in 
charge  of  the  pits,  whose  duty  it  is  to  assign  or  assist  the 


Telescopic   Siglits  103 

range  officer  in  assigning  details  to  targets,  instruct  them  and 
cause  them  to  prepare  their  targets  for  firing.  He  has  per- 
sonal charge  under  the  range  officer,  of  the  range  property 
and  material  and  issues  it  to  the  details  each  day.  He  causes 
necessary  repairs  to  be  made  to  targets  and  material,  targets 
to  be  pasted,  and  is  otherwise  the  assistant  of  the  range  officer 
acting  under  his  orders. 

TELESCOPIC  SIGHTS 

Two  telescopic  sights  form  part  of  the  equipment  of  each 
company.  They  are  assigned  to  the  men  best  qualified  to  use 
them. 

Four  ,men  from  each  company  are  required  to  have  prac- 
tice with  them,  on  B  and  C  targets,  at  ranges  up  to  1,000 
yards.  Not  to  exceed  40  rounds  per  man.  At  1,000  yards 
20  rounds  will  be  fired  for  record.  The  record  will  show 
the  number  of  the  rifle,  the  score,  the  elevation  and  windage 
used  at  the  different  ranges  and  the  force  of  the  wind 
when  firing. 

LONG  DISTANCE  PRACTICE 

All  those  who  qualify  as  expert  riflemen  and  sharpshooter 
are  required  to  fire  the  long  distance  practice. 

This  course  will  be  fired  twice  and  on  different  days. 

Having  fired  the  course  through  once,  an  officer  or  soldier 
may  be  excused  from  firing  at  800  yards  again,  at  the  dis- 
cretion of  the  company  commander. 

It  consists  of  10  shots  fired  from  prone  position,  at  each 
800  and  1,000  yards,  and  is  repeated  once. 

No  report  is  required,  but  the  record  will  be  kept  in  the 
company. 

For  engineers  and  cavalry  the  practice  will  be  conducted 
at  the  discretion  of  the  troop  or  company  commanders. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

FIELD  SERVICE  REGULATIONS 

INFORMATION 

In  Peace — Information  obtained  in  time  of  peace  by 
the  general  staff  includes  the  following :  geography,  resources, 
military  methods,  arms,  strength  of  various  arms,  and  other 
equipment  and  methods,  of  foreign  countries. 

In  War — Information  obtained  in  time  of  war  by  means 
of  reconnaissance,  newspapers  and  other  papers,  prisoners, 
deserters,  spies,  maps,  etc.,  in  regard  to  the  strength,  com- 
position, disposition  and  intentions  of  the  hostile  forces;  also 
information  in  regard  to  the  terrain  of  the  theatre  of  opera- 
tions. 

Reconnaissance — By  reconnaissance  is  meant  the  pro- 
curing of  military  information  in  the  field.  Thorough  recon- 
naissance is  kept  up  from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of 
hostilities . 

By  Aero  Squadron — At  the  beginning,  aero  squadrons 
operate  in  front  of  the  cavalry. 

By  the  Cavalry — The  cavalry  reconnoitres  for  informa- 
tion in  front  of  the  troops  to  which  it  is  attached,  screens 
its  movements,  and  attempts  to  destroy  the  enemy  cavalry. 
Its  operations  are  largely  independent  and  are  directed  by 
the  supreme  commander.  On  large  fronts  sometimes  two  or 
more  bodies  of  independent  cavalry  will  cooperate. 

Divisional  Cavalry — This  is  the  cavalry  assigned  to  a 
division.  When  the  division  is  separate  the  cavalry  is 
usually  independent  cavalry,  otherwise  it  is  used  as  advance 
cavalry.  Advance  cavalry  is  known  as  outpost,  advance 
guard,  flank  guard,  or  rear  guard  cavalry,  according  to 
the  nature  of  its  duty. 

Supplementary  Reconnaissance — Where  the  cavalry  fails 
in  its  reconnaissance,  protection  must  be  rendered  by  the 
bther  arms. 

104 


Field  Service  Regulations  105 

Independent  Cavalry  operates  at  great  distances  in  ad- 
vance of  the  force  to  which  it  belongs. 

Advance  Cavalry  is  more  restricted  in  its  operations 
and  goes  more  into  detail. 

When  there  is  no  independent  cavalry  in  front  of  it,  the 
advance  cavalry  will  assume  its  duties. 

By  Infantry — When  infantry  is  preceded  by  the  aero 
squadron  and  the  cavalry,  its  reconnaissance  will  be  re- 
stricted to  local  protection. 

When  there  is  no  cavalry,  distant  reconnaissance  will  be 
conducted  by  mounted  scouts  of  the  infantry. 

When  there  is  little  cavalry  and  the  country  is  difficult, 
both  the  cavalry  and  the  infantry  will  reconnoitre. 

Reconnaissance  Immediately  Preceding  Combat — Before 
deploying  for  action,  thorough  reconnaissance  is  necessary. 
Certain  information  is  essential  before  the  commander  can 
plan  his  attack.  The  composition  and  action  of  the  reconnoitr- 
ing forces  depend  upon  the  jnformation  needed  and  the 
strength  and  action  of  the  enemy's  screening  detachments. 
Such  reconnaissance  may  vary  from  the  action  of  small 
patrols  to  the  actual  attacking  by  a  considerable  portion  of 
the  command.  The  advance  guard  either  supplements  or 
supplies  this  reconnaissance  when  necessary  and  should  dis- 
close the  enemy's  strength  and  position  as  quickly  as  pos- 
sible. Artillery  with  the  advance  guard  is  particularly  use- 
ful in  developing  a  situation  by  inflicting  heavy  losses. 
The  ordinary  sequence  of  reconnaissance  is  as  follows : 
1.  By  Aero  squadron.  2.  By  dependent  cavalry.  3.  By  the 
advance  cavalry.  4.  By  the  advance  guard-infantry.  5.  By  the 
artillery,  or  infantry  assisted  by  the  artillery. 

Meeting  Engagement — In  a  meeting  engagement  where 
time  is  a  great  factor,  much  preliminary  reconnaissance  will 
have  to  be  dispensed  with  and  action  taken  upon  the  in- 
formation the  advance  guard  has  obtained. 

Attack  on  Position — In  the  attack  on  a  position  which 
the  enemy  has  taken  up  deliberately  and  has  strengthened, 
time  is  often  not  so  important,  therefore  complete  develop- 
ment is  essential. 

Reconnaissance  During  Combat  is  performed  by  the 
infantry  with  regard  to  the  terrain  in  front  and  for  main- 


106  Field  Service  Regulations 

taining  contact  with  the  enemy;  by  the  aero  squadron  over 
and  around  the  enemy's  position,  to  learn  of  any  changes 
in  its  strength  or  movements;  by  the  cavalry  by  means  of 
small  detachments  around  the  flanks  and  rear  of  the  enemy. 
The  main  body  of  the  cavalry  to  'be  held  in  readiness  at  the 
disposition  of  the  supreme  commander. 

Reconnaissance  Patrols— These  are  detachments  sent 
out  to  obtain  information.  They  are  usually  small  and  avoid 
fighting  when  not  absolutely  necessary  to  the  success  of  their 
mission.  The  commander  determines  the  number  and  kinds 
of  patrols  to  be  sent  out.  Only  such  patrols  as  are  necessary 
should  be  employed.  Patrols  vary  in  size  from  two  men  to 
a  company  or  troop.  Small  patrols  have  the  advantage  of 
being  easily  concealed  and  of  mobility  and  are  economical  of 
men.  Strong  patrols  have  the  advantage  of  possessing  greater 
force.  They  usually  protect  themselves  by  means  of  small 
patrols. 

Inspection  of  Patrols — Officers  sending  out  patrols 
should  carefully  inspect  them  to  see  that  the  men  and  equip- 
ment are  as  they  should  be. 

Orders  to  a  Patrol — These  should  state  what  is  known 
regarding  the  enemy,  the  terrain,  etc.,  and  should  clearly  state 
the  mission  the  patrol  is  to  accomplish.  Instructions  to  a 
patrol  must  be  clearly  understood. 

Patrol  Leaders — These  are  selected  for  skill  in  patrol- 
ling, for  health,  physical  condition,  and  general  all  round 
suitability,  including  ability  to  ,make  and  read  maps,  send 
clear  messages,  etc. 

Conduct  of  Patrol — Stealth  and  caution  are  essential, 
particularly  in  small  patrols. 

Formation — The  formation  of  a  patrol  should  be  such 
as  to  give  security  to  the  greater  part  of  it.  In  the  case  of 
a  small  patrol  the  formation  should  insure  the  escape  of  one 
man  in  the  event  of  an  ambuscade. 

Patrols  will  not  allow  strangers  to  precede  them.  They 
may  seize  civilians,  telegrams,  mail,  etc. 

Signs  of  the  Enemy — Patrols  should  watch  the  signs  of 
the  enemy  at  all  times  and  attempt  to  understand  their  move- 
ments. Abandoned  clothing  and  equipment  might  give  valu- 
able information.  Thick  low  dust  clouds  indicate  infantry 


Field  Service  Regulations  107 

marching ;  high  thin  clouds,  cavalry  marching;  a  broken 
cloud,  artillery  or  wagon  train. 

In  order  to  estimate  the  strength  of  a  command  the  fol- 
lowing rule  should  be  memorized : 

175  infantry,  in  column  or  squads,  will  pass  a  given  point 
in  one  minute;  110  cavalry  in  column  of  fours,  at  a  walk; 
200  cavalry  in  column  of  fours,  at  a  trot;  5  guns  or  caissons, 
at  a  walk;  troops  in  columns  of  twos,  one-half  the  above 
numbers. 

When  it  is  certain  that  the  enemy  is  discovered,  the  fact 
will  be  reported. 

Information  Usually  Desired — The  regulation,  forma- 
tion and  strength  of  the  enemy  and  his  various  arms.  The 
nature  of  the  forces  with  which  the  patrol  has  come  in  con- 
tact, whether"  it  is  a  patrol,  a  portion  of  the  advance  guard, 
a  flank  guard,  the  main  body,  etc. 

This  information  is  usually  obtained  by  breaking  through 
troops  which  are  stationary,  or  remaining  in  hiding  and  allow- 
ing them  to  march  by. 

Ambuscades  are  often  avoided  by  returning  by  a  different 
route. 

Signals — Enemy  in  sight  in  small  numbers — holding  the 
rifle  over  the  head  horizontally;  enemy  in  force,  same  as 
above,  but  moving  the  rifle  up  and  down  several  times;  to 
take  cover,  a  downward  motion  of  the  hand. 

Signals  for  different  emergencies  should  be  pre-arranged 
also  a  place  of  assembly  in  the  event  of  becoming  dispersed. 

Air  Craft — The  aero  squadron  is  employed  under  the 
direction  of  the  commander  of  the  forces  to  which  they  belong 
and  act  under  the  orders  of  their  commander. 

Balloons  are  free,  captive  and  dirigible.  Free  balloons  are 
of  little  use,  except  to  carry  information  from  a  besieged 
place.  Captive  balloons,  connected  with  the  ground  by  tele- 
phone, are  used  for  reconnaissance  and  for  direction  of 
artillery  fire.  Dirigible  balloons  are  for  distant  reconnais- 
sance and  for  carrying  machine  guns,  explosives,  etc. 

Aeroplanes  are  more  dependable  for  field  service. 
They  are  used  for  reconnaissance  and  observation  of  artillery 
fire,  and  also  to  destroy  hostile  air  craft.  Their  radius  of 
action  is  about  150  miles  and  is  increasing.  They  may  be 
used  both  in  attack  and  defence.  When  used  for  observation 
of  artillery  fire,  they  are  under  the  orders  of  the  artillery 


108  Field  Service  Regulations 

commander.-  They  communicate  by  radio  or  by  dropping 
messages. 

Messages — Messages-  are  written  information  sent  by 
messenger  or  wire.  They  should  be  brief  and  clear,  re- 
sembling telegrams,  with  the  source  of  the  information  given. 

Reports — These  are  more  or  less  formal  accounts  of 
conditions  or  enterprises.  They  are  usually  drawn  up  at 
leisure  and  are  based  upon  messages  received  and  sent,  and 
upon  actual  occurrences. 

Field  Maps — Those  of  our  own  country  are  prepared  by 
the  Geological  Survey  on  a  scale  of  1 :62500  -or  about  1  inch 
to  the  mile,  with  20  ft.  contours.  These  maps  are  supple- 
mented by  maps  and  sketches  prepared  from  day  to  day.  A 
uniform  system  of  scales  and  contour  intervals  is  prescribed 
as  follows: 

1  inch  to  1  mile,  V.  I.  60  ft.;  3  inches  to  1  mile,  V.  I. 
20  ft;  6  inches  to  1  mile,  V.  I.  10  ft.;  12  inches  to  1  mile, 
V.  I.  5  ft. ;  the  3  inch  scale  is  for  road  sketches ;  the  6  inch 
scale  is  for  position  and  outpost  sketches ;  the  1  inch  scale  is 
for  extended  operations ;  the  12  inch  scale  is  for  use  in  war 
games,  or  for  the  discussion  of  operations  at  manouvers,  and 
in  siege  operations.  Messages  should,  when  practicable  and 
necessary,  be  supplemented  by  sketches. 

War  Diary — This  is  a  record  of  events  kept  in  campaign 
by  battalion  and  higher  commanders,  also  the  commanders  of 
the  various  trains.  Entries  should  be  made  daily  and  form 
a  concise  history.  Each  day's  record  should  contain  the 
march  table,  the  operations  or  location  of  the  organization, 
the  condition  of  the  weather,  roads,  camp,  health  of  troops, 
etc.,  and  a  statement  of  the  supply  of  ammunition,  rations  and 
forage.  It  should  also  give  a  chronological  record  of  all 
events,  including  messages  sent  and  received.  Each  day's 
record  should  be  attested  by  the  co,mmander  or  his  adjutant. 

Commanders  of  armies  or  of  separate  units  will  forward 
their  diaries  direct  to  the  War  Department. 

Transmission  of  Information — Information  is  trans- 
mitted as  follows : 

(1)  By  wire;  (2)  by  visual  signalling;  (3)  by  radio  tele- 
graph; (4)  by  messenger.  For  considerable  distances  wire 
or  radio  is  used.  For  short  distances  a  messenger. 

Messages  sent  by  wire  will  be  given  to  the  operator  in 
writing. 


Security  109 

When  telephone  is  used  parties  concerned  should  do  the 
talking.  It  is  the  duty  of  all  persons  to  assist  in  the  trans- 
mission of  orders  and  messages.  It  is  often  advisable  to 
send  information,  not  only  to  the  proper  superior,  but  to 
neighboring  troops,  when  this  is  done  the  fact  should  be 
noted  on  each. 

Information  Officers — : These  are  officers  assigned  to  ac- 
company large  commands,  whose  duty  it  is  to  keep  their 
commanders  informed  as  to  the  situation  of  neighboring 
troops. 

Messages — It  is  desirable  that  messages  sent  by  mes- 
sengers be  enclosed  in  envelopes  and  properly  addressed.  En- 
velopes not  marked  "confidential"  are  left  unsealed  so  that 
commanders  along  the  line  imay  read  the  contents.  Upon  the 
envelope  is  written  the  name  of  the  messenger,  time  of  de- 
parture, rate  of  speed.  The  rate  of  speed  is  indicated  by  the 
words  "ordinary,"  which  means  about  5  miles  an  hour  for  a 
mounted  man;  "rapid,"  which  means  7  or  8  miles  an  hour; 
and  "urgent,"  the  highest  speed  consistent  with  certain  de- 
livery. The  recipient  of  the  message  notes  the  time  of  re- 
ceipt upon  the  envelope  and  returns  it  to  the  bearer. 

When  there  is  danger  of  a  message  falling  into  the  hands 
of  the  enemy,  cipher  should  be  used.  Important  information 
is  sent  by  two  or  more  messengers.  It  ,may  be  advisable  to 
send  duplicate  messages  by  different  routes.  Messengers 
should  be  informed  before  starting  of  the  purport  of  the 
message  and  where  to  report  after  delivery. 

Relay  lines  of  mounted  men  may  be  found  necessary. 
When  such  is  the  case  connecting  points  are  generally  placed 
along  the  roads  at  well  marked  points,  such  as  cross-roads, 
bridges,  etc.  The  number  and  distance  between  posts  depends 
upon  the  men  available  and  the  conditions  that  necessitate 
them.  The  usual  distance  is  from  5  to  10  miles.  The  strength 
from  6  men  to  a  half  troop.  A  record  of  all  communications 
should  be  kept  at  each  post. 

SECURITY 

Security  consists  of  measures  taken  to  protect  a  command 
from  observation,  annoyance  or  surprise.  Security  is  pro- 
vided at  a  distance  by  independent  cavalry.  In  addition  to 
the  security  furnished  by  independent  cavalry,  certain  cover- 
ing detachments  nearer  the  command  are  employed.  On  the 


110  Advance   Guards 

march,    covering   detachments   are   called    advance,    flank,   or 
rear  guards;   in  camp  or  bivouac,   outposts. 

The  object  of  the  advance  guard  is  to  facilitate  the  march 
and  give  protection  from  surprise  and  observation.  The  object 
of  the  outpost  is  to  secure  the  camp  or  bivouac  against  sur- 
prise and  to  withstand  an  attack  until  the  troops  can  prepare. 
Advance  guards  drive  off  small  bodies,  remove  obstacles,  pre- 
pare roads,  bridges,  etc.  They  prevent  the  enemy  from  firing 
into  the  main  body  until  it  is  in  readiness  to  receive  the 
attack,  or  prepare  for  action ;  to  prevent  reconnaissance  by 
the  enemy  and,  in  the  event  of  retreat,  to  gain  time  for  it 
to  escape  or  reorganize. 

Security  Formations — First,  the  cavalry  covering  the 
front,  next  a  group  or  line  of  groups  in  observation,  then  a 
support  or  line  of  supports  forming  a  line  of  resistance,  and 
fourth,  is  the  reserve. 

In  the  march  order  is  stated  the  detail  of  the  covering 
troops  and  the  name  of  their  commander,  also  the  route  to 
be  taken  and  distance  from  the  main  body.  The  cornmandei 
of  the  covering  detachment  should  clearly  explain  the  situa- 
tion to  subordinates,  assign  troops  to  subdivisions,  and  pre- 
scribe distances  and  duties  of  each.  The  commander  of  an 
advance  or  flank  guard  marches  well  to  the  front  directing 
such  changes  and  dispositions  as  he  may  find  necessary.  In 
large  commands  all  arms  participate  in  security  duty.  In 
detailing  troops  for  security,  economy  consistent  with  safety 
is  exercised.  The  proportion  of  troops  on  security  duty 
varies  from  one-twentieth  to  one-third  of  the  entire  force. 
The  integrity  of  units  is  preserved  when  practical.  In  mixed 
commands  infantry  predominates.  Cavalry  should  be  used 
where  its  mobility  is  needed.  Artillery  is  used  as  occasion 
demands.  Engineer,  signal  and  sanitary  troops  are  detailed 
when  necessary  and  available. 

Field  trains  of  covering  detachments  generally  remain  with 
the  train  of  the  command,  but  may  be  permitted  to  join  their 
organization.  Covering  troops  pay  no  co,mpliments.  Indi- 
viduals salute  when  they  address  or  reply  to  superior  officers. 

ADVANCE  GUARDS 

Duties — 1.  To  guard  against  surprise  and  furnish  in- 
formation. 


Advance   Guards  111 

2.  To  prevent  observation  of,  firing  upon,  or  delaying 
the  main  body. 

3.  To  check  the  enemy's  advance  long  enough  to  per- 
mit the  main  body  to  prepare. 

4.  When  the   enemy  is   encountered,   on   the  defensive, 
seize  a  good  position  and  locate  his  lines.     Not  to  bring  on 
a  general   engagement   unless   the   commander   is    empowered 
to  do  so. 

5.  To  remove  obstacles  to  repair  the  roads  and  favor 
a  steady  march. 

Strength  and  Composition — In  larger  forces  the  propor- 
tion of  the  advance  guard  to  the  main  body  should  be  greater, 
because  it  takes  relatively  longer  for  a  .large  command  to 
prepare  for  action  than  a  small  one.  A  large  command  is 
composed  of  all  arms,  the  proportion  depending  upon  con- 
ditions. In  open  country  it  should  be  strong  in  cavalry  and 
field  artillery.  Artillery  is  seldom  assigned  to  the  advance 
guard  of  a  command  not  larger  than  a  brigade.  When  there 
is  artillery  with  the  command  the  officer  of  that  arm  should 
accompany  the  advance  guard  for  purposes  of  artillery  re- 
connaissance. In  difficult  country  infantry  might  serve  alone. 
When  there  is  no  independent  cavalry,  advance  guard  should 
be  strong  in  cavalry.  Machine  guns  should  be  used  with  the 
advance  guard  to  hold  bridges,  defiles,  etc.  Engineers  are 
attached  to  repair  roads,  bridges,  etc.  Bridge  trains  are  as- 
signed when  necessary  and  available.  The  supreme  com- 
mander controls  the  signal  troops  usually,  but  a  portion  of 
them  may  be  attached  to  the  advance  guard.  An  ambulance 
company  usually  accompanies  large  advance  guards. 

Distance  From  Main  Body — In  small  commands  the 
distance  given  in  the  march  order  is  maintained  by  the  ad- 
vance guard.  In  large  advance  guards,  the  main  body  regu- 
lates its  march  on  the  advance  guard.  The  distance  should 
be  sufficient  to  prevent  needless  halts  to  the  main  body  and 
to  give  it  time  to  deploy.  It  should  not  be  so  great  as  to 
prevent  if  necessary,  the  advance  guard  being  supported. 

Advance  Guard  Commander — He  will  estimate  the 
situation  and  issue  advance  guard  orders.  The  order  desig- 
nates the  tactical  components,  i.  e.,  advance  cavalry,  support, 
etc.,  and  gives  instructions  for  each.  The  advance  guard 


112  Distribution  of  Troops 

commander  is  mounted  and  goes  where  necessary.  His  usual 
station  is  at  the  head  of  the  reserve,  or  the  support  where 
there  is  no  reserve.  He  constantly  studies  the  ground  with 
a  view  to  tactical  dispositions. 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  TROOPS 
ADVANCE  CAVALRY,  SUPPORT  AND  RESERVE 

Advance  Cavalry — It  should  reconnoitre  far  enough  to 
the  front  to  guard  against  artillery  fire;  when  there  is  inde- 
pendent cavalry  it  maintains  connection  therewith.  If  there 
is  no  independent  cavalry  it  does  its  duty  to  a  limited  extent. 

Support — Following  the  advance  cavalry  is  the  support, 
varying  in  strength  from  one-quarter  to  one-half  of  the  ad- 
vance guard.  In  mixed  commands  it  consists  of  infantry. 
Engineers  may  be  attached.  If  there  is  no  advance  cavalry, 
some  cavalry  should  be  attached  to  it  for  reconnoitering. 
The  support  sends  forward  an  advance  party  several  hundred 
yards,  the  distance  varies  with  the  conditions.  The  advance 
party  supplements  the  work  of  the  cavalry.  It  provides  for 
its  own  local  protection  and  that  of  the  main  body.  The 
advance  party  is  preceded  by  a  point,  which  is  a  small  patrol. 
With  advanced  cavalry,  reconnaissance  by  the  infantry  is 
minimized.  The  advance  party  is  about  one-eighth  to  one- 
third  of  the  support.  When  there  is  no  cavalry,  more  patrols 
are  provided  by  the  advance  party  and,  if  necessary,  more 
men  are  sent  from  the  support  and  reserve.  The  support 
commander  usually  marches  with  the  advance  party  and  goes 
where  necessary.  He  sees  that  the  proper  road  is  followed; 
that  guides  are  left  in  towns  and  cross-roads,  repairs  are 
made  to  roads,  bridges,  etc.,  and  that  information  is  verified 
and  transmitted  to  the  advance  guard  comniander. 

Reserve — The  reserve  follows  the  support  at  several 
hundred  yards.  It  consists  of  the  remainder  of  the  advance 
guard.  The  artillery  is  at  the  head  of  the  reserve.  The  en- 
gineers, bridge  train,  and  special  troops  are  at  its  rear. 

Reconnaissance — This  is  usually  conducted  by  small 
patrols.  When  necessary  flank  guards  will  cover  a  threatened 
flank.  Where  the  terrain  permits  patrols  may  parallel  the 
march  of  the  column.  This  is  usually  possible  for  cavalry 
patrols.  Infantry  patrols  and  sometimes  those  which  are 


Distribution   of  Troops  113 

mounted  will  best  reconnoitre  by  visiting-  places  along  the 
line  of  march  to  examine  and  guard  danger  points.  They 
should  communicate  with  the  main  column  when  necessary. 
Deserters,  suspicious  characters,  and  bearers  of  flags  of  truce 
(the  latter  blindfolded)  are  taken  to  the  advance  guard  com- 
mander. Civilians  are  not  permitted  to  precede  the  advance 
guard.  Communication  between  portions  of  the  advance 
guard  and  the  main  body  is  maintained  by  wire,  messengers 
or  signals. 

Advance  Guard  of  a  Small  Command — In  a  small  com- 
mand the  foregoing  arrangement  may  be  modified  to  suit  the 
situation.  A  company  v  or  troop  usually  uses  only  a  point. 
A  battalion  or  squadron,  an  advance  party.  A  war  strength 
battalion  or  squadron  should  put  a  company  in  the  advance 
guard.  A  regiment  should  put  a  battalion  or  squadron,  if 
the  enemy  is  Ikely  to  be  encountered.  Where  the  advance 
guard  is  less  than  a  battalion  there  is  no  reserve. 

Advance  Guard  of  Cavalry  Command — Cavalry  usually 
adopts  the  same  formation  for  its  advance  guard  as  those 
described  above,  but  with  greater  distances. 

Security  in  Retreat — In  a  retreat  a  column  is  preceded 
by  what  are  termed  leading  troops,  to  clear  the  road  and 
facilitate  the  retreat.  Its  strength  and  composition  depend 
upon  conditions  and  troops  available.  Engineers  are  gener- 
ally necessary.  Cavalry  is  assigned  to  this  duty  to  protect 
against  guerillas  or  small  hostile  parties.  If  seriously  op- 
posed, leading  troops  would  be  practically  an  advance  guard. 

Flank  Guard — The  flanks  of  a  column  are  protected 
usually  by  patrols  from  the  advance  guard.  When  a  flank 
is  threatened  a  special  detachment  called  a  flank  guard  pro- 
tects it.  Flank  guards  vary  in  size  from  patrols  to  detach- 
ments of  all  arms.  Their  composition  and  action,  like  those 
of  the  advance  guard,  depend  largely  on  existing  circum- 
stances. 

Flank  Marches — When  the  main  body  marches  parallel 
and  near  to  the  enemy,  a  flank  guard  is  most  important.  If 
the  flank  march  is  due  to  a  considerable  change  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  main  body,  a  new  advance  guard  may  be  sent  out. 
In  long  columns  the  various  units  will  provide  their  own 
flank  observation. 


114  Outposts 

Rear  Guards — A  rear  guard  is  charged  with  the  duty 
of  covering  a  retreat.  The  rear  guard  order  is  issued  upon 
the  commander's  decision  to  retreat.  During  a  retreat  the 
outpost  for  the  night  becomes  a  rear  guard  till  next  day. 

Strength  and  Composition — This  depends  upon  the  na- 
ture of  the  country,  strength  and  character  of  the  pursuing 
forces.  It  does  not  count  upon  the  support  from  the  main 
body.  Machine  guns,  engineers  and  ambulance  companies  are 
usually  assigned  to  it.  Troops  that  have  suffered  the  least 
and  are  in  the  best  condition  should  he  selected  for  rear 
guards. 

Distribution  of  Troops — This  depends  largely  upon  the 
conduct  of  the  enemy.  When  necessary  to  withdraw  while 
deploying,  the  greater  part  of  the  rear  guard  marches  on  the 
road,  taking  up  a  formation  like  that  of  advance  guard  faced 
to  the  rear. 

From  the  main  body  outward  the  parts  are  named  as  fol- 
lows :  Reserve,  support,  and  rear  cavalry. 

The  rear  cavalry  is  between  the  support  and  the  enemy  in 
the  rear.  The  support  drops  back.  A  rear  party  corresponds 
to  the  advance  party  of  an  advance  guard. 

Mounted  engineers  accompany  the  support,  but  may  be 
attached  to  the  rear  party.  The  cavalry  and  horse  artillery, 
if  in  sufficient  numbers,  might  furnish  the  entire  rear  guard, 
except  the  reserve.  This  is  usually  composed  of  infantry  and 
artillery. 

Distances — About  the  same  rule  applies  as  in  the  case 
of  advance  guards.  If  marching  at  night,  the  rear  guard 
draws  nearer  the  (mam  body. 

Rear  Guard  of  an  Advancing  Force — If  there  is  a  pos- 
sibility of  an  attack  in  the  rear,  a  suitable  rear  guard  is  pro- 
vided. In  the  event  of  trouble  from  guerillas,  marauders, 
etc.,  the  rear  guard  should  be  strong  in  cavalry,  generally 
/marches  in  the  rear  of  the  train  which  follows  the  troops 
without  distances. 

OUTPOSTS 

Size  and  Disposition — These  depend  upon  size  of  the 
command,  proximity  of  the  enemy,  the  situation,  terrain,  etc. 
The  size  may  vary  from  a  small  fraction  to  one-third  of 
force.  For  a  single  company  a  few  sentinels  and  patrols 


Outposts  115 

should  suffice.  In  large  commands  an  elaborate  outpost  sys- 
tem is  provided.  Economy  of  men  is  exercised  consistent 
with  security.  Economical  protection  is  often  best  afforded 
by  causing  the  enemy  to  be  watched  by  small  patrols  with 
resisting  attachments  posted.  Complete  organizations  should 
be  used  on  outpost  duty. 

In  small  forces  the  outpost  is  usually  formed  from  the 
advance  guard  and  is  relieved  the  following  day.  The  out- 
post is  relieved  when  the  new  advance  guard  passes  through 
it.  In  retreat  it  is  detailed  from  the  main  body.  The  new 
outpost  then  becomes  the  rear  guard  the  following  day. 

In  large  forces  the  outpost  is  formed  of  the  advance  and 
rear  guards  and  performs  its  duty  for  several  days  before 
it  is  relieved.  In  small  commands  it  is  relieved  daily. 

Sub-divisions  of  the  outpost  prepare  for  defence  generally, 
but  this  may  be  unnecessary  under  certain  conditions. 

The  outpost  duty  troops  should  be  concealed  as  much  as 
is  consistent  with  proper  performance  of  duty.  Positions  on 
the  sky  line  are  to  be  avoided. 

Composition— Outposts  are  usually  composed  of  the 
three  arms : 

The  Infantry,  whch  performs  local  observation,  especially 
at  night,  and  furnishes  the  necessary  resistance. 

The  Cavalry  reconnoitres  at  a  distance  in  open  country  and 
by  day.  When  the  infantry  is  exhausted,  the  cavalry  may 
relieve  it  of  outpost  duty  temporarily. 

When  the  advance  guard  forms  the  outpost,  the  advance 
cavalry  continues  to  reconnoitre  until  night. 

Artillery  is  used  to  command  approaches  and  favorable 
positions  for  the  enemy.  The  guns  are  concealed  and  are 
usually  withdrawn  at  night.  Machine  guns  should  command 
and  check  sentinel  attacks. 

Engineers  assist  in  the  preparation  for  defence. 

The  supreme  commander  controls  the  signal  troops  and 
establishes  communication  to  the  reserve  and  from  the  reserve 
to  each  support  and  detached  post. 

Usually  no  sanitary  train  is  attached  to  the  outpost.  If 
necessary,  dressing  stations  may  be  established  conveniently 
in  the  rear  of  the  outpost.  The  field  trains  of  the  outpost 
troops  join  their  organization.  If  combat  is  probable,  they 
remain  at  the  rear. 


116  Outposts 

Distribution — The   outpost  is   divided  as   follows: 

From  rear  to  front :  Reserve,  supports,  outguards,  advance 
cavalry. 

The  distances  between  these  parts  and  from  the  main  body 
depend  on  the  object  sought,  the  terrain  and  the  size  of  the 
command.  No  uniformity  of  distance  can  be  expected.  Con- 
ditions control  positions  of  troops. 

The  outpost  of  a  small  force  should  hold  the  enemy  beyond 
effective  rifle  range  until  the  main  body  can  deploy.  In 
large  forces  the  enemy  should  be  held  beyond  artillery  range. 

The  Reserve  is  the  main  body  of  outposts  and  is  lo- 
cated at  some  central  point  from  which  to  reinforce  supports 
or  form  a  rallying  point. 

The  reserve  may  be  omitted  when  the  outpost  consists  of 
less  than  two  companies. 

The  reserve  comprises  from  one-fourth  to  two-thirds  the 
strength  of  the  outpost. 

The  Supports  constitute  the  line  of  resistance  and  vary 
from  one-half  of  a  company  to  a  battalion  (usually  a  com- 
pany). They  furnish  the  outguard.  They  are  numbered  con- 
secutively from  right  to  left  and  occupy  the  important  points 
where  resistance  is  to  be  made.  They  usually  occupy  posi- 
tions on  roads  and  other  probable  avenues  of  approach. 

The  line  of  outposts  should  be  carefully  selected  with  a 
view  to  defence,  and  accurately  defined.  A  section  is  as- 
signed to  each  support  and  clearly  indicated. 

The  Outguards  form  the  line  of  observation.  Out- 
guards  are :  Pickets,  sentry  squads,  cossack  posts. 

They  are  numbered  from  right  to  left  in  each  support. 

A  picket  is  from  two  squads  to  half  a  company.  They  are 
used  at  important  points.  They  furnish  patrols,  sentinels, 
double  sentinels,  sentry  squads  or  cossack  posts  for  obser- 
vation. The  strength  of  the  picket  depends  upon  the  duty 
to  be  performed. 

The  sentry  squad  is  a  squad  posted  in  observation.  It  posts 
single  or  double  sentinels  by  day  and  night  respectively,  and 
sometimes  furnishes  a  patrol. 

A  cossack  post  consists  of  four  men  posted  in  observation. 
It  furnishes  a  single  sentinel.  At  night  it  may  be  advisable 
to  change  the  position  of  observation  groups,  particularly  of 
sentinels. 


Outposts  117 

Sentinels  are  usually  single  in  day  time  and  double  at 
night. 

Sentinels  of  cossack  posts  are  kept  very  near.  Sentinels 
from  pickets  may  be  as  far  away  as  one  hundred  yards. 

There  should  be  easy  communication  between  the  sentinels 
and  their  groups. 

Sentinels  are  numbered  from  right  to  left  for  each  out- 
guard.  Observation  groups  are  numbered  consecutively  from 
right  to  left  for  each  support  regardless  of  their  names. 

By  day,  outpost  cavalry  reconnoitres  in  front  of  the  line 
of  observation,  and  when  there  is  independent  cavalry  farther 
to  the  front  it  maintains  connection  therewith. 

At  night  the  cavalry  is  usually  withdrawn  near  the  re- 
serve in  order  to  rest  their  horses  and  also  because  the 
infantry  can  better  perform  night  reconnaissance. 

Small  detachments  of  cavalry  are  generally  assigned  to 
the  supports  for  distant  reconnaissance. 

With  cavalry  in  front,  the  work  of  the  infantry  is  mini- 
mized. 

Advance  cavalry  acts  under  the  direction  of  the  outpost 
commander. 

It  is  advisable  at  times  to  replace  outguards  by  patrols  at 
such  places  where  an  advance  by  the  enemy  would  be  dif- 
ficult, and  where  patrols  could  afford  the  necessary  pro- 
tection. 

In  daylight  where  the  sentinels  have  sufficient  view  to 
afford  protection,  much  local  patrolling  may  be  dispensed 
with.  Distant  patrolling,  however,  should  be  provided  for 
where  necessary. 

Patrols  and  sentinels  must  give  sufficient  warning  to  en- 
able the  supports  to  prepare  for  action. 

It  is  the  duty  of  patrols  and  outguards  to  delay  the  enemy 
as  much  as  possible  without  sacrificing  themselves,  and  then 
retire  to  their  respective  supports. 

Connection  is  kept  up  between  parts  of  the  outposts  by 
patrols,  except  where  a  clear  view  renders  it  unnecessary. 

At  night,  communication  between  the  different  groups  is 
essential. 

Detached  posts  will  be  furnished  from  the  reserve  or  main 
body  for  places  not  in  the  general  line  assigned  to  the  sup- 
ports. 

The  outpost  is  established  quickly,  in  order  that  the  troops 
may  rest  as  soon  as  possible. 


118  The  Halt  Order 

Until  the  permanent  outpost  is  established,  a  temporary  or 
march  outpost  is  posted  from  the  advance  guard. 

THE  HALT  ORDER 

The  halt  order  includes  the  following:  The  commander's 
decision  to  halt;  assignment  of  camp  sites  to  units;  detail  of 
troops  for  outpost  and  a  commander  thereof;  the  general 
outpost  line  and  position  of  defence  in  case  of  attack. 

The  outpost  commander  upon  receipt  of  the  halt  order  will 
issue  the  outpost  order  by  reference  to  a  map  or  after  suit- 
able reconnaissance. 

The  outpost  order  includes  the  following:  Information  re- 
garding the  enemy,  line  to  be  occupied,  troops  for  supports, 
location  and  sector  for  detached  posts,  any  special  recon- 
naissance required;  location  and  disposition  of  the  reserve, 
disposition  of  train,  if  it  is  with  the  troops ;  location  of  his 
headquarters. 

The  outpost  commander  will  usually  give  his  orders  to 
his  support  commanders  from  some  good  point  of  view. 

Orders  to  support  and  reserve  commanders  should  be  so 
given  as  soon  as  possible.  Subordinates  not  present  should 
be  given  all  general  information. 

In  large  outposts,  orders  are  usually  written. 

After  issuing  the  order,  the  outpost  commander  inspects 
the  outpost,  orders  necessary  changes,  and  makes  report  to 
his  superior. 

The  commander  of  the  reserve  marches  it  to  its  post  and 
sends  out  necessary  detachments,  establishes  bivouac,  post- 
ing at  least  one  sentinel  on  guard.  He  provides  connection 
with  main  body,  supports  and  nearby  detached  posts. 

Supports  marching  to  their  posts  furnish  their  own  pro- 
tection. 

The  support  commander's  order  includes :  Information  as 
to  the  situation ;  detail  of  outguards ;  defines  their  sectors ; 
detail  of  patrols ;  provides  for  sentinels  posts ;  directs  the 
necessary  intrenching;  establishes  connection  with  adjoining 
supports  and  with  its  outguards. 

The  support  commander  must  arrange  to  cover  his  sector 
so  as  to  preclude  the  possibility  of  the  unobserved  approach 
of  the  enemy,  and  yet  exercise  economy  in  men. 

•When  the  support  is  posted,  the  commander  inspects  all 
dispositions,  makes  necessary  corrections,  and  renders  re- 
port and  sketch  to  outpost  commander. 


The  Halt  Order  Ii9 

The  outguards  are  marched  to  their  posts  furnishing  their 
own  protection. 

The  outguard  commander  explains  the  situation,  forms  re- 
liefs for  sentinels  and  patrols.  In  the  case  of  a  picket,  he 
arranges  for  a  sentinel  at  its  post. 

He  posts  the  sentinels  and  points  out  and  explains  all  topo- 
graphical features  in  his  sector,  giving  direction  and  location 
of  enemy  if  known,  and  location  of  neighboring  outguards. 

He  gives  patrols  all  necessary  information  and  orders,  re- 
quiring each  to  cover  its  ground  at  least  once  before  dark. 

Pickets  should  maintain  connection  with  outguards  upon 
the  right  and  left,  by' means  of  patrols. 

Outguards  should  be  concealed  and  their  posts  strength- 
ened. 

Relieving  the  Outpost— The  new  outpost  troops  should 
arrive  at  daybreak,  which  will  give  double  strength  on  the 
outpost  line  at  the  most  dangerous  hour. 

In  the  evening  and  early  morning,  the  outpost  should  be 
particularly  vigilant,  as  these  periods  are  favorable  to  enter- 
prises by  the  enemy. 

Examining  Post — This  is  a  small  detachment  com- 
manded by  an  officer  or  a  non-commissioned  officer,  stationed 
at  some  convenient  point  to  examine  strangers  who  approach 
the  outpost  line. 

Their  use  is  not  general,  but  at  times  may  be  important, 
particularly  when  the  enemy  speaks  a  different  tongue  or 
during  a  siege. 

ORDERS 

Letters  of  Instruction — Movements  over  large  areas 
and  for  considerable  periods  of  time  are  regulated  by  letters 
of  instruction. 

Field  Orders — Tactical  and  strategical  actions  not  con- 
veyed in  letters  of  instruction  are  regulated  by  field  orders. 

Field  orders  for  an  army  or  division  are  written ;  for  a 
brigade  usually  written ;  for  a  regiment  or  smaller  unit  usu- 
ally verbal. 

Object  of  field  order:  To  make  a  course  of  action;  to 
create  cooperation  between  all  parts  of  the  forces,  to  express 
intention  of  leader. 

They  are  issued  for  marches,  halts,  camps,  security,  com- 
bat, etc. 


120  General  Orders 

Field  orders  are  often  issued  in  fragmentary  form,  con- 
sisting of  messages  written  -or  oral.  Whenever  they  give 
detailed  instructions,  they  should  follow  the  prescribed  form. 

Details  of  administration  are  usually  issued  in  "orders," 
but  when  convenient  may  be  included  in  field  orders. 

Orders  should  'be  issued  in  sufficient  time  only  for  the 
recipients  to  study  and  understand  them. 

For  divisions  it  requires  one  and  one-half  hours  for  dis- 
tribution of  orders,  and  for  brigades  about  one  hour. 

The  hour  of  issue  is  the  hour  of  signature 

GENERAL  ORDERS 

These  include  (1)  instructions  for  carrying  out  general 
regulations  issued  by  superior  headquarters;  (2)  all  standing 
instructions,  in  order  to  prevent  frequent  repetition.  They 
are  issued  by  the  following  commanders :  of  armies,  of  field 
armies,  of  divisions,  brigades,  regiments,  and  separate  bat- 
talions. 

Orders  are  issued  by  commanders  of  divisions  and  separ- 
ate brigades,  and  are  for  the  regulation  of  matters  pertaining 
to  supply,  distributing  points,  use  of  rations,  and  hospital 
service,  etc.  Also  to  the  line  of  communication,  rendezvous, 
and  evacuation  points. 

Special  Orders  refer  to  movements  and  assignments  of 
individuals,  and  are  not  published  to  commands  generally. 

Verbal  Orders  are  given  by  commanders  in  person,  or 
sent  by  staff  officers  or  messengers.  When  important,  they 
should  be  recorded  at  once.  They  should  be  sent  by  mes- 
sengers only  in  cases  of  necessity. 

They  should  contain  but  one  mandate,  and  that  stated  as 
concisely  as  possible. 

The  bearer  of  a  verbal  message  should  be  required  to  re- 
peat it  before  starting. 

Composition  of  Field  Orders — The  officer  issuing  a 
field  order  must  previously  estimate  the  situation  and  come 
to  a  decision,  and  carefully  word  his  order  in  the  prescribed 
form. 

In  estimating  the  situation,  the  commander  should  care- 
fully consider  his  mission  and  all  existing  conditions,  sur- 
rounding or  affecting  him. 

In  making  his  decision,  he  should  carefully  consider  every 
means  open  to  him  for  accomplishing  his  mission,  and  after 


General  Orders  ,  121 

duly  weighing  each,  decide  which  is  most  promising  of  suc- 
cess. He  then  makes  his  decision. 

Orders  should  be  the  outcome  of  logical  reasoning.  They 
should  as  far  as  practicable  preserve  the  integrity  of  tactical 
units.  They  should  be  clear  and  definite.  Expressions  which 
leave  one  in  doubt  as  to  their  meaning  should  be  avoided. 
In  stating  locations  or  directions,  use  points  of  the  compass 
and  definite  distances.  For  instance,  to  indicate  a  position, 
"On  hilltop  600  yards  N.  E.  of  Jones'  mill."  Avoid  using 
such  expressions  as  "The  other  side  of  Elk  Creek"  or  "On 
the  left  hand  side  of  the  road,"  as  much  depends  upon  the 
viewpoint  of  the  individual.  The  right  or  left  flank  of  a  body 
of  troops  has  a  fixed  meaning,  however,  and  refers  to  the 
right  or  left  of  a  command  when  facing  the  ene,my.  The 
right  and  left  do  not  change  when  a  command  is  in  retreat. 

Geographical  names  should  be  written  in  capitals.  Where 
names  are  not  pronounced  as  they  are  spelled,  their  phonetic 
spelling  should  appear  in  brackets  immediately  after. 

When  two  or  more  places  have  the  same  name,  reference 
should  be  made  to  some  other  point  to  distinguish  between 
them. 

A  road  is  indicated  by  the  naming  of  two  or  more  points 
along  it. 

Use  an  affirmative  expression  when  possible. 

Written  orders  should  be  absolutely  legible. 

They  should  consist  of  brief  and  concise  sentences. 

Conjectures,   expectations  and  reasons   should  be   avoided. 

The  commander  should  accept  the  entire  responsibility  and 
should  issue  his  orders  in  positive  language. 

They  should  leave  the  details  of  execution  to  the  officer 
who  is  to  execute  them. 

When  much  time  will  elapse  between  the  issuing  of  orders 
and  their  execution,  letters  of  guidance  are  preferable.  These 
should  lay  stress  upon  the  object  to  be  attained  and  omit  the 
means  to  be  employed. 

Orders  should  not  attempt  to  arrange  matters  too  far  in 
advance. 

Details  of  time  and  place  should  be  carefully  stated,  and 
subordinate  commanders  and  staff  officers  should  be  required 
to  regulate  their  watches  by  that  of  the  commander,  or  other 
official  timepiece. 

Orders  of  subordinates  should  not  merely  repeat  those  of 
higher  commanders.  They  should  go  more  into  detail. 


122  General  Orders 

Form  For  Field  Orders — In  order  to  secure  quick 
understanding  and  prompt  cooperation,  field  orders  should 
follow  the  prescribed  form.  The  parts  of  a  field  order  are: 
The  heading,  the  distribution  of  troops  (where  necessary), 
the  body,  the  ending. 

The  Heading — This  contains  the  title  or  name  of  the 
issuing  officer's  command,  the  place,  date,  hour  of  issue,  and 
number  of  the  order. 

Titles  are  expressed  as  follows:  Det.  1st  Div. ;  Outpost, 
6th  Inf.;  Advance  Guard,  3rd  Div.;  1st  Brig.  1st  Div.;  3rd 
Div. 

In  the  above  titles  "Det.  1st  Div."  means  that  the  com- 
mand is  composed  of  troops  from  the  first  division ;  "Ad- 
vance Guard,  3d  Div."  means  that  the  command  is  the  ad- 
vance guard  of  the  third  division. 

The  title  may  appear  in  the  order  creating  a  command, 
thus :  "The  Second  Brigade  will  constitute  the  advance 
guard." 

The  title  with  place,  date,  and  number  fully  identifies 

an  order. 

Whether  named  in  the  title  or  elsewhere  in -the  order,  the 
abbreviated  form  for  the  designation  of  tactical  organiza- 
tions is  preferable. 

When  a  fraction  of  an  organization  can  not  be  designated 
by  naming  one  or  more  of  the  sub-divisions,  it  receives  the 
generic  title  of  "detachment." 

A  detachment  is  a  body  of  troops  separated  from  a  higher 
command  and  intrusted  with  a  special  mission. 

Nearly  every  command  -of  any  size  is  composed  of  troops 
from  the  different  arms  or  special  services,  or  both,  and  when 
not  constituting  a  division,  brigade,  or  other  authorized  unit, 
the  question  arises  whether  to  call  such  a  command  a  "de- 
tachment" or  to  give  it  the  tactical  designation  of  the  pre- 
doiminating  arm  or  special  service.  If  there  is  a  predominat- 
ing element  the  title  of  the  command  is  that  of  the  predomi- 
nating element,  unless  the  proportion  of  auxiliary  troops  or 
special  troops  equals  or  exceeds  that  prescribed  for  a  division, 
in  which  case  the  command  is  a  detachment.  For  example : 
A  command  consisting  of  one  regiment  of  infantry  and  one 
squadron  is  a  detachment,  while  the  title  of  a  command  con- 
sisting of  one  regiment  of  infantry  and  a  troop  is  that  of  the 
regiment. 

Dates  in  the  heading  are  abbreviated  thus.  4  -Feb.  '08, 
2-45  P.  M. 


General  Orders  123 

The  Distribution  of  Troops — The  distribution  of  troops 
shows  the  tactical  components  into  which  a  command  is 
divided  (advance  guard,  main  body,  etc.)  and  the  troops  as- 
signed to  each.  It  is  generally  used  in  march  orders  and  in 
the  first  field  order  applying  to  a  command  newly  created  or 
organized.  In  other  cases  it  is  usually  more  convenient  to 
name  the  troops  in  the  body  of  the  order,  where  their  duties 
are  prescribed. 

When  a  "distribution"  is  used  it  is  headed  "Troops,"  and 
in  written  or  printed  orders  is  placed  on  the  left  of  the  body, 
occupying  about  one-third  of  the  page.  The  tactical  com- 
ponents are  marked  with  lettered  subheads  (a),  (b),  etc., 
the  troops  listed  under  each  performing  the  task  prescribed 
in  the  similarly  marked  paragraph  of  the  body  of  the  order. 

When  orders  are  dictated  or  sent  by  wire  or  signals,  the 
distribution  of  troops  (if  used)  is  given  immediately  after 
paragraph  2,  without  number. 

The  Body — The  body  contains  information  and  instruc- 
tions for  the  command,  and  is  arranged  in  numbered  para- 
graphs as  follows : 

Paragraph  1  contains  such  information  of  the  enemy  and 
of  'our  supporting  troops  as  it  is  desirable  that  subordinates 
should  know. 

Paragraph  2  contains  the  general  plan  of  the  commander, 
or  so  much  thereof  as  will  insure  cooperation  of  all  parts  of 
the  command. 

Paragraph  3  contains  the  detailed  tactical  disposition 
adopted  by  the  commander  to  carry  out  the  plan  outlined  in 
paragraph  2,  including  the  tasks  assigned  to  each  of  the 
several  combatant  fractions  of  the  command.  These  tasks 
are  given  under  lettered  subheads  (a),  (b),  etc.,  the  leading 
fracton,  or  the  one  having  the  most  important  duty  to  per- 
form being  generally  considered  first.  For  instance:  In  an 
attack  order  it  is  customary  to  consider  the  artillery  first;  in 
a  imarch  order,  troops  are  considered  according  to  their  posi- 
tion in  the  column. 

Instructions  applicable  to  all  of  these  fractions  may  be 
embodied  in  a  subparagraph,  lettered  (x),  at  the  end  of  para- 
.  graph  3. 

Paragraph  4  contains  instructions  for  the  train,  distribut- 
ing and  dressing  stations,  etc. 

Paragraph  5,  where  the  commander  can  be  found,  and  the 
location  of  "lines  of  information." 


124  General  Orders 

Where  additional  paragraphs  are  necessary,  they  are 
written  and  properly  numbered  after  paragraph  4. 

The  location  of  the  commander  is  always  indicated  in  the 
last  paragraph. 

No  abbreviations  are  used  in  the  body  of  the  order  except 
A.  M.  and  P.  M.,  and  those  authorized  for  tactical  organiza- 
tions and  designation  of  rank. 

In  naming  a  night,  both  days  should  be  mentioned,  thus : 
Night  4/5  Feb.  08.  To  designate  noon  and  midnight,  these 
words  are  written. 

The  Ending — This  contains  the  authentication  of  the 
order  and  a  statement  of  how  it  is  communicated  to  the  com- 
mand. Before  orders  are  issued,  they  should  be  carefully 
checked  to  see  that  the  entire  command  is  accounted  for. 

MARCHES  AND  CONVOYS 

A  march  is  successful  when  the  troops  arrive  at  their 
destination  at  the  appointed  time,  without  loss  of  efficiency. 
Good  marching  is  obtained  by  careful  preparation,  discipline, 
march  sanitation,  minimizing  hardships,  preparation  without 
haste,  marching  at  route  order,  informing  as  to  duration  of 
halts,  and  taking  advantage  of  them;  not  keeping  burdens  on 
men  longer  than  necessary,  caring  for  mens'  feet,  and  the 
hoofs  and  backs  of  animals,  resting  one  day  in  seven  on  long 
marches,  never  making  forced  marches  when  unnecessary. 

Compliments  are  omitted  on  the  march. 

The  conduct,  formation,  start,  rate  and  length  of  the  march, 
are  regulated  according  to  its  object. 

Conduct  of  Marches — Preparation — Men  and  animals  to 
be  fit  and  equipped,  wagons  properly  loaded,  arrangements 
for  supplies  made,  and  for  care  and  evacuation  of  sick  and 
wounded. 

FORMING  THE  COLUMN 

Issue  March  Order — This  states  the  object,  distribution 
of  troops,  order  of  troops  in  main  body  and  provides  for 
formation  of  the  column. 

When  a  command  marches  in  two  s  (2)  columns,  the  two 
commanders  issue  additional  orders. 

Forming  the  Column — If  distant  from  the  road;  by  the 
successive  arrival  of  units  at  an  initial  point,  usually  in  the 
direction  of  the  march. 


The  Column  125 

Initial  Point — Is  fixed  by  the  commander  with  refer- 
ence to  position  of  troops  and  available  roads — may  fix  other 
initial  points  for  other  units. 

In  large  commands  units  should  be  incorporated  in  order 
of  march  for  following  day.  The  following  should  be  con- 
sidered;  Road  space  and  rate  of  march,  and  distance  from 
initial  point  of  different  units;  approximate  road  spaces  for 
Infantry  in  column  of  squads,  Cavalry,  in  fours,  Artillery, 
wagons  and  trucks  in  single  column  are  as  follows :  Infantry, 
two  men  per  yard;  Cavalry,  1  man  per  yard;  Artillery,  (guns, 
caissons  and  wagons)  20  yards  each,  and  trucks  12  yards. 

Commanders  of  subordinate  units  should  examine  routes, 
calculate  time  required,  and  start  accordingly;  designate 
initial  points  when  necessary. 

The  Commander  designates  time  of  start,  and  subordinate 
commanders  issue  orders  necessary  to  comply. 

Distribution  of  Troops— This  is  controlled  by  (1)  tacti- 
cal consideration,  (2)  reduction  of  hardships. 

Order  of  March— (1)  Cavalry  and  Horse  Artillery.  (2) 
Infantry,  Field  and  Mountain  Artillery.  (3)  Engineers.  (4) 
Trains,  etc.  In  retreat  this  order  is  reversed. 

In  mixed  commands,  large  bodies  of  Cavalry  and  Horse 
Artillery  should  march  separately  from  foot  troops. 

An  engineer  detachment  should  march  near  the  head  of 
each  column  to  repair  roads,  etc. 

The  order  of  units  in  all  commands  should  be  changed 
from  day  to  day,  by  placing  that  which  is  leading  one  day, 
at  the  rear  the  next  day. 

Troops  should  march  on  the  right  of  the  road  when  prac- 
ticable, leaving  the  left  free  for  passage.  When  the  con- 
dition of  the  roads  make  it  advisable,  the  column  may  be 
split  and  half  march  on  each  side  of  the  road. 

Straggling  and  elongating  the  column  must  not  be  per- 
mitted. 

Infantry  habitually  marches  in  column  of  squads,  and 
Cavalry  in  column  of  fours  when  practicable.  Both  .march 
in  twos  when  it  is  desirable.  Artillery  marches  in  column 
of  sections,  but  when  the  road  permits,  may  march  in  double 
sections.  On  trails  and  in  difficult  country  troops  march  by 
files  or  Troopers,  or  any  way  that  appears  most  advantageous. 

The  Start — Marches  usually  begin  in  the  morning,  al- 
lowing a  reasonable  length  of  time  for  breakfast,  feeding 


126  The  Column 

of  animals,  preparing  for  the  march,  policing  the  camp,  etc. 
Foot  troops  do  not  usually  start  before  broad  daylight. 
Mounted  troops  start  about  an  hour  after  daylight.  Prepara- 
tions for  the  days  march  are  made  pursuant  to  calls  sounded 
from  headquarters,  and  are  supervised  by  an  officer  from 
each  organization. 

Distances  between  units  or  trains  will  be  in  accordance 
with  regulations,  or  else  as  ordered  by  the  commander.  They 
may  be  temporarily  increased  or  diminished  as  may  be 
necessary  to  prevent  checking  the  column. 

Rate  and  Length  of  Marches — The  rate  is  regulated  by 
the  foot  troops.  It  varies  with  the  size  and  condition  of 
the  command,  conditions  of  the  road,  weather,  topography 
of  the  country  and  the  tactical  requirements. 

Infantry  marches  at  Drill,  100  yards  per  minute, 
3.4  miles  per  hour.  On  the  road,  the  rate  will  be 
88  yards  per  minute,  or  three  (3)  miles  per  hour;  which 
with  the  required  halts  of  ten  (10)  minutes  every 
hour,  will  make  it  cover  about  2^4  to  2*/£  miles  per  hour. 
This  is  average  marching.  Infantry  will  march  about  fifteen 
(15)  miles  per  day  under  ordinary  circumstances.  In  large 
bodies  this  will  often  be  reduced  to  about  twelve  (12)  miles 
per  day.  Small  efficient  commands  in  good  weather  can 
average  twenty  (20)  miles  per  day. 

Cavalry  marches  4  miles,  8  miles  and  12  miles  per  hour. 
The  average  marching  at  a  walk  is  a  mile  in  16  ,minutes, 
or  3^4  miles  per  hour,  and  at  a  trot,  8  minutes  to  the  mile, 
or  7y2  miles  per  hour.  In  the  field  the  usual  gait  is  the 
walk,  which  with  halts  reduces  the  march  to  3T/2  to  3^4 
miles  per  hour.  The  average  march  of  cavalry  when  seasoned 
is  25  miles  per  day. 

Field  Artillery  assumes  the  rate  of  march  of  the  body  to 
which  it  is  attached.  If  alone  it  will  march  15  to  20  miles 
per  day. 

Horse  Artillery  marches  at  the  same  rate  as  the  Cavalry — 
to  which  it  is  attached. 

The  rate  of  march  for  the  trains  depends  upon  the  kind 
and  condition  of  the  animals,  condition  of  roads,  the  load 
and  the  length  of  the  column.  Under  favorable  conditions 
they  may  march  about  4  miles  per  hour.  This  is  unusual  how- 
ever. The  rate  of  march  varies  according  to  conditions ; 
from  2l/4  to  about  2  miles  per  hour  for  an  average. 


The   Column  127 

Pack  Trains  carrying  about  250  Ibs.  per  animal  will 
march  20  to  25  miles  per  day,  on  ordinary  roads,  but  in 
rough  country,  not  more  than  10  to  15  miles. 

Auto  Trucks  or  wagons  drawn  by  tractors  vary  so  in 
their  marching  ability  that  no  fair  average  has  been  decided 
upon.  , 

Halts— Commands  are  halted  occasionally  to  rest.  The 
first  halt  is  made  after  45  minutes  of  marching,  and  is 
for  about  15  minutes.  This  halt  should  not  be  made  in  the 
vicinity  of  dwellings,  as  it  is  for  sanitary  purposes,  and 
for  adjusting  clothing  and  equipment.  After  the  first  halt, 
foot  troops  halt  to  rest  about  10  .minutes  in  every  hour. 
The  men  fall  out,  but  remain  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of 
their  places  in  column  after  the  first  halt. 

Cavalry  halts  only  about  five  minutes  per  hour,  to  examine 
horses'  feet,  adjust  equipment,  etc. 

Field  Artillery  will  halt  for  'about  5  to  10  minutes  per 
hour,  to  inspect  and  made  adjustments. 

It  is  desirable  to  finish  the  ^march  as  soon  as  practicable. 
Marches  of  less  than^  15  miles  for  Infantry  and  25  miles  for 
Cavalry  will  not  be  divided  by  long  halts.  On  larger  marches, 
which  will  extend  into  the  afternoon,  it  is  well  to  rest  and 
feed  during  the  noon  hour.  Such  a  halt  should  be  made  at 
a  place  selected  with  a  view  of  obtaining  good  ground,  shade, 
shelter  and  water.  During  long  rests  arms  are  stacked  and 
equipment  removed.  Mounted  Troops  dismount  and  loosen 
cinches. 

In  the  tropics,  in  order  to  avoid  the  heat  of  the  day, 
marches  may  be  commenced  earlier  in  the  morning,  and  a 
long  rest  taken  during  the  hotter  hours.  The  (march  may  bo 
resumed  later  in  the  afternoon.  It  is  not  very  satisfactory, 
however,  to  arrive  at  a  strange  place  late  in  the  day.  Troops 
should  not  be  halted  near  towns,  except  when  necessary  to 
get  water  and  supplies ;  in  which  case  the  men  will  remain 
in  column. 

In  small  commands  units  halt  and  start  at  command  or 
signal.  In  large  commands,  the  commanders  of  units  halt 
and  start  at  the  time  indicated  in  orders.  All  unit  com- 
manders will  have  their  watches  set  with  that  of  the  com- 
mander. 

Crossing  Bridges  and  Ferries — When  there  is  cause  for 
delay,  the  troops  should  be  informed  as  to  the  probable  length 
of  the  delay,  in  order  that  they  may  take  advantage  of  the 
time  to  rest. 


128  The  Column 

When  crossing  difficult  places,  every  effort  should  be  made 
to  prevent  checking  the  march  of  the  troops  in  the  rear. 
Units  may  be  required  to  overlap  and  seek  other  passages. 
When  a  company  is  forced  to  slacken  its  pace  at  a  crossing, 
the  head  of  the  company  should  slacken  its  pace  till  the  rear 
is  past  the  obstacle.  The  company  resumes  its  place  in  the 
column  by  quickening  its  pace. 

Fords,  bogs,  bridges,  etc.,  should  be  carefully  examined 
before  crossing,  and  when  necessary,  an  officer  is  detailed  to 
superintend  the  crossing;  whose  instructions  must  be  com- 
plied with. 

When  temporary  bridges  are  used  there  will  be  a  bridge 
guard,  under  an  engineer  officer,  for  its  care.  His  orders 
relative  to  the  bridge  will  be  considered  as  those  of  the  com- 
mander. 

In  quicksands,  swamps,  treacherous  fords,  etc.,  the  way 
will  be  carefully  marked  with  stakes  in  the  day,  and  with 
lanterns  at  night.  A  fire  vill  also  be  built  at  the  exit. 

Foot  troops  will  ford  deep  swift  currents,  on  as  wide  a 
front  as  possible;  holding  hands  or  locking  arms. 

The  men  should  refrain  from  looking  at  the  water,  bul 
watch  the  landing  place. 

It  is  sometimes  advantageous  to  have  the  mounted  troops 
ford  first,  above  the  Infantry,  to  break  the  force  of  the 
current. 

Delay  at  difficult  fords  is  often  lessened  by  finding  several 
places  to  cross  at  once. 

Animals  and  wagons  will  deepen  fords  having  mud  and 
sand  bottoms,  necessitating  the  selecting  of  other  places  for 
crossing. 

Persons  operating  a   ferry  must  not  be  interfered  with. 

Men  enter  pontoons  or  barges,  singly  at  the  bow,  and  move 
toward  the  stern.  In  larger  vessels  ,men  may  march  in  by 
twos.  They  retain  their  places.  In  small  boats  and'  in  rough 
weather  the  men  will  sit  down.  When  the  crossing  is  dan- 
gerous they  will  remove  their  equipment. 

Horses  are  loaded  singly.  In  a  single  row,  they  are  placed 
head  and  tail,  side  by  side.  In  double  row,  they  face  inward, 
If  a  horse  falls  overboard  he  is  let  loose. 

Guns,  caissons  and  wagons  are  loaded  by  hand,  and  teams 
go  on  same  vessel  when  possible. 

In  unloading,  the  men  leave  from  the  bow  in  order,  and 
do  not  rise  until  their  turn. 

With  rafts  the  center  is  loaded  first,  and  the  load  is  equally 
distributed. 


The  Column  129 

The  center  is  the  last  place  to  unload. 

Cattle  will  be  required  to  swim  if  possible.  Rafts  are 
dangerous  on  account  of  the  tendency  of  cattle  to  crowd  into 
one  place. 

Care  of  Troops — Commanders  must  keep  themselves 
informed  as  to  the  condition  of  the  troops,  and  the  progress 
of  subordinate  units  in  the  rear. 

Water  supplies  must  be  carefully  examined  and  marked 
"Good"  or  "Bad,"  especially  in  commands  where  cholera  and 
other  diseases  of  the  stomach  or  intestines  are  prevalent. 

Guard  against  excessive  eating  or  drinking.  Make  can- 
teen last  for  day's  march.  Canteens  should  be  replenished 
when  necessary.  This  should  be  done  in  an  orderly  ,manner, 
and  under  the  inspection  of  a  responsible  person. 

Advance  guards  may  require  inhabitants  to  place  water 
along  line  of  march  for  troops.  It  is  sometimes  necessary 
to  convey  a  supply  of  water  in  wagons. 

When  the  water  question  for  the  day  is  doubtful,  the  horses 
should  be  watered  before  leaving'.  ''• 

As  many  troops  as  possible  should  be  watered  at  the  same 
time. 

Watering  animals  is  a  test  of  the  discipline  of  a  command. 

Units  water  in  turn,  and  at  a  place  corresponding  to  the 
positions  they  occupy  in  the  column. 

Animals  of  Artillery  and  trains  are  watered  in  camp,  before 
leaving  and  upon  arrival,  except  when  there  is  ample  time 
to  water  from  buckets  or  to  unhitch. 

In  hot  weather  precautions  as  to  selecting  shade  and  fresh 
air  for  resting  should  be  considered.  Men  should  be  cau- 
tioned not  to  drink  too  freely.  Green  leaves  and  wet  hand- 
kerchiefs in  the  hats,  often  give  relief.  When  overheated  the 
men  ,must  not  cool  too  suddenly. 

Straggling — No  man  should  leave  the  ranks  without  per- 
mission. Officers  and  non-commissioned  officers  will  report 
those  disobeying  this  rule. 

Enlisted  men  away  from  their  organizations  will  be  ar- 
rested by  the  Military  Police;  who  will  send  all  men  so 
arrested  to  their  companies,  with  statements  of  the  circum- 
stances, v  * 

Those  who  pillage  and  commit  other  crimes,  are  arrested 
and  dealt  with  according  to  law. 

Camp  or  Bivouac— Upon  approaching  camp  the  Com- 
mander issues  the  halt  order. 


130  Kinds  of  Marches 

KINDS  OF  MARCHES 
Peace  Marches — (1)  Marches  in  change  of  station. 

(2)     Practice  marches. 

Marches  in  Campaigns — (1)     Concentration  marches. 
(2)     Marches  in  the  presence  of  the  enemy. 
(3)-    Forced  marches. 
(4)     Night  marches. 

Changing  Station — The  march  order  may  be  issued  to 
cover  several  days,  -or  for  each  day.  It  prescribes  the  fol- 
lowing : 

(1)  The  distribution  of  troops. 

(2)  Time  of  starting. 

(3)  Camping  places. 

(4)  Time  for  calls. 

(5)  Any  other  .necessary  details. 

To  lessen  the  discomfort  distances  may  be  increased. 

.On "muddy  roads  the  mounted  troops  may  be  made  to  fol- 
low the  Infantry.  In  high  vegetation  or  deep  mud  they  may 
be  made  to  break  the  way  for  Infantry. 

Field  trains  may  march  with  their  regiments  and  supply 
trains,  conveniently  placed. 

Practice  Marches — These    are    for    two    (2)    purposes. 

(1)  Hardening  the  men  and  animals. 

(2)  For  teaching  officers  their  duties  in  campaign. 
They  should  conform  to  the  conditions  they  are  meant  to 

simulate,  and  should  always  include  field  service  instructions. 
The  issuing  of  field  orders  will  be  required  for  all  tactical 
exercises. 

Concentration  Marches— Are  for  the  purpose  of 
assembling  troops  at  a  certain  point.  Time  and  road  spaces 
are  the  principal  elements  to  be  considered.  These  are  af- 
fected by  the  road  and  weather  conditions,  etc. 

A  column  of  troops  on  the  .march  must  not  be  cut  by 
another. 

When  two  commands  meet  at  cross-roads,  the  senior  has 
the  right  of  way.  If  near  the  enemy,  the  senior  decides  on 
which  shall  precede. 

If  .one  column  overtakes  another,  it  may  pass  on  if  its 
commander  be  the  senior;  -otherwise  with  the  senior's  con- 
sent. 

Marches  in  the  Presence  of  the  Enemy — The  order  in 
such  marches  is  controlled  by  tactical  considerations  and  is 


Kinds  of  Marches  131 

determined  by  the  plan  for  the  employment  of  the  troops. 
When  contact  with  the  enemy  is  probable  columns  are  closed 
up  and  march  on  wide  fronts.  Communication  is  kept  up 
between  columns  on  parallel  roads,  and  all  impedimenta  kept 
in  the  rear.  If  a  part  of  a  unit  of  infantry  is  assigned  to 
the  advance  guard,  the  rest  of  that  unit  marches  at  the  head 
of  the  main  body. 

In  an  advance  the  artillery  is  near  the  head  of  the  main 
body  in  order  to  assure  its  prompt  action.  Sufficient  infantry 
should  precede  it  to  insure  its  security.  The  artillery  com- 
•mander  should  accompany  the  commander  of  the  column.  If 
there  is  danger  from  the  flanks  the  artillery  may  be  broken 
into  columns  not  longer  than  a  regiment  with  detachments 
of  infantry  in  front,  on  the  flanks,  and  in  the  rear  of  each. 
This  formation  is  not  conducive  to  quick  action.  However, 
to  reduce  delay  the  artillery  may  be  marched  in  double  col- 
umn and  its  combat  trains  follow  immediately  the  last  in- 
fantry unit.  When  moving  into  action  artillery  has  the  right 
of  way.  An  example  of  the  march  of  the  main  body  of  a 
division  is  as  follows : 

1  regiment  infantry.  1  battalion  artillery.  Regiment  artil- 
lery. 2  brigades  infantry  (less  1  regiment).  Engineers. 
Signal  troops.  Artillery  combat  trains.  Trains. 

In  marching  through  defiles,  forests,  or  at  night,  it  may 
be  advisable  for  the .  artillery  to  be  placed  at  the  rear. 

Trains — Military  trains  should  be  guarded  at  all  times. 
Field  trains  are  guarded  by  ,men  on  duty  with  it,  by  con- 
valescents and  other  noneffectives,  by  dismounted  men  of  the 
cavalry  and  members  of  the  artillery  reserve.  Supply,  am- 
munition, and  engineer  trains  are  guarded  by  military  police. 
When  marching  into  action  trains  should  be  placed  so  as  not 
to  interfere  with  movements.  Pontoon  trains,  when  needed, 
should  be  as  far  forward  as  practicable.  When  wagons  break 
•down  or  stall  the  load  should  be  transferred  to  others  and 
the  road  cleared  promptly. 

Forced  Marches — The  conduct  of  a  forced  march  is 
controlled  by  the  distance  and  the  time  in  which  it  is  to  be 
made.  They  are  only  ,made  when  necessary.  With  large  com- 
mands they  are  more  difficult  than  with  small  ones.  Foot  troops 
make  forced  marches  by  increasing  the  marching  time.  Halts 
for  cooking  and  sleeping  are  arranged  to  afford  the  maxi- 
mum benefit.  An  increase  in  the  pace  is  seldom  advisable. 
The  maximum  day's  march  for  infantry  and  trains  is  28  to 
30  miles.  Such  a  march  should  not  be  for  more  than  36 


132  Kinds   of  Marches 

hours.  If  the  march  continues  for  several  days,  each  day's 
march  should  be  of  more  than  average  length.  Foot  troops 
should  be  especially  favored  with  best  roads  and  not  inter- 
mingled with  vehicles  and  mounted  men.  If  possible  their 
packs  should  be  transported.  Mounted  troops  increase  the 
gait  and  the  time  of  marching.  They  may  make  50  miles  per 
day  for  three  or  four  days.  The  usual  hourly  halts  are  made 
and  a  two  hour  halt  is  made  in  the  middle  of  each  day's 
march,  when  horses  should  be  unsaddled  and  fed.  The 
rate  of  march  should  be  five  miles  an  hour,  excluding  halts. 
Single  marches  of  100  miles  are  made  in  24  to  30  hours, 
during  which  halts  are  made  every  hour  and  two  hour 
halts  are  made  at  the  end  of  the  first  and  second  thirds  of 
the  march.  The  rate  of  march  should  be  five  and  one-half 
miles  an  hour.  Marches  of  30  to  40  miles  at  six  miles  per 
hour  can  be  made  under  favorable  conditions.  In  small  well 
seasoned  commands  the  rate  may  be  increased.  A  forced 
march  of  150  miles  should  be  made  in  about  3  days.  Forced 
(marches  of  200  miles  should  be  made  at  the  rate  of  30  to 
40  miles  per  day.  The  horses  and  men  should  be  relieved 
and  assisted  by  requiring  the  men  to  dismount  and  lead  for 
periods  and  should  be  permitted  to  remove  sweaters,  coats, 
etc.,  if  desirable. 

Night  Marches — These  are  made  to  avoid  excessively 
hot  day  marches  or  to  surprise  the  enemy  or  secure  a  favor- 
able position.  Good  roads  and  moonlight  are  desirable.  A 
few  hours  rest  should  be  taken  and  best  discipline  maintained. 
The  following  precautions  should  be  taken :  See  that  proper 
road  is  followed;  contact  is  maintained  between  units;  that 
men  are  stationed  at  crossroads  and  changes  of  direction; 
guides  are  secured;  troops  kept  closed  up.  When  the  march 
is  secret  additional  precautions  are  taken.  Silence  is  main- 
tained, mouthpieces  of  bugles  are  removed,  articles  of  equip- 
ment secured  to  prevent  rattling,  smoking  is  prohibited, 
habitations  are  avoided  and  extra  time  allowed  in  the  event 
of  having  to  leave  the  road.  Cavalry  marches  in  the  rear 
of  infantry  and  the  artillery  follows  the  cavalry  and  has  a 
special  infantry  escort. 

Convoys  by  Land — The  term  convoy  applies  to  any 
train  by  which  supplies  are  forwarded  to  an  army.  The 
term  also  applies  to  troops  guarding  such  train.  There  are 
also  convoys  of  prisoners  on  land  and  transports  by  water. 


Kinds   of   Marches  133 

Wagon  Convoys — These  consist  of  not  more  than 
100  wagons  usually  and  occupy  about  a  mile  of  road  space. 
An  officer  is  in  charge  of  a  convoy  which  is  divided 
into  sections  of  20  to  30  wagons  each,  under  a  noncommis- 
sioned officer  or  wagon  master.  Military  police  assist  and 
protect  the  convoy.  Where  the  transportation  is  hired  or 
impressed  a  strong  guard  is  necessary.  There  should  be  25 
yards  between  sections,  two  yards  between  wagons,  and  the 
rate  of  march  should  be  two  to  two  and  one-half  miles  an 
hour,  halts  included.  Halts  for  breathing  on  long  inclines 
and  for  locking  wheels  on  descents  are  permitted.  Long  halts 
should  be  avoided.  The  slowest  teams  are  placed  in  the 
lead.  Loads  from  broken  wagons  are  transferred  to  others 
and  the  road  promptly  cleared. 

Security — Security  is  furnished  by  an  escort  of  infantry 
and  enough  cavalry  should  be  provided  for  ^  scouting  and 
communication,  also  some  engineers  for  repairing  roads  and 
bridges.  In  open  country  the  proportion  of  cavalry  should 
be  greater.  The  strength  of  trie  escort  depends  upon :  Size  of 
train ;  risk ;  nature  of  the  country ;  length  of  march ;  etc. 
Trains  containing  explosives  require  an  extra  strong  escort. 
The  senior  line  officer  with  the  troops  is  in  command.  He 
should  consult  and  defer  to  the  wishes  of  the  officer  in  charge 
of  the  train.  Officers  casually  with  a  convoy  have  no  au- 
thority over  it. 

Distribution  of  Troops — Advance  guard.  Main  body. 
Flank  guard  (if  necessary).  Rear  guard. 

Advance  Guard — The  advance  cavalry,  if  any,  precedes 
the  train  3  to  5  miles  reconnoitring  the  front  and  flanks. 
There  should  be  guides  and  interpreters.  Bridges  should  be 
guarded  and  topography  should  be  carefully  examined.  The 
remainder  of  the  advance  guard  marches  about  a  mile  in 
front  of  the  train.  Its  commander  should  examine  the  coun- 
try with  a  view  to  selecting  places  for  parking  in  the  event 
of  contact  with  the  enemy.  The  head  of  a  train  should  not 
enter  a  defile  until  the  further  end  is  guarded. 

The  main  body  marches  at  the  most  important  point,  either 
at  the  head,  rear,  or  center  of  the  train,  ordinarily  at  the 
center.  If  it  .marches  at  the  center  it  is  advisable  to  place 
a  body  of  infantry  at  the  head  and  tail  of  the  convoy. 

The^rear  guard  marches  a  short  distance  in  the  rear  of  the 
train,  in  usual  rear  guard  formation.  Its  strength  is  usually 
about  one-sixth  of  the  escort. 


134  Kinds  of  Marches 

Camping — The  commander  selects  the  place  for  camp- 
ing with  regard  to  water  supply,  fuel,  grass,  and  defence.  A 
field  enclosed  by  wire  is  desirable.  Animals  will  not  be 
herded  if  there  is  danger  of  attack,  or  unless  otherwise,  im- . 
perative.  During  halts  the  train  is  parked.  The  shape  of 
the  park  depends  upon  the  existing  conditions.  Ordinarily 
when  at  a  distance  from  the  enemy  it  is  parked  in  column 
of  sections  or  half  sections  with  20  yards  between  subdivis- 
ions and  intervals  of  six  or  eight  yards  between  wagons.  A 
more  compact  formation  may  be  secured  by  placing  the 
wagons  axle  to  axle  and  tying  animals  to  picket  lines  in  front 
of  the  wagons. 

Formation  for  Defence — Two  lines  facing  each  other; 
the  diamond ;  a  square ;  a  rectangle ;  an  oval ;  a  circle ;  with 
the  poles  pointing  inward.  Wire  entanglements  and  trenches 
should  be  constructed  when  necessary.  The  camp  or  park 
is  protected  by  outposts. 

Defence  of 'a  Convoy — The  duty  of  an  escort  is  to  keep 
the  enemy  from  gaining  a  position  permitting  effective  fire 
on  the  train  and  to  prevent  surprise.  The  flanks  are  the 
most  vulnerable  parts.  The  escort  fights  only  when  neces- 
sary and  does  not  pursue  when  the  enemy  is  repulsed.  If 
the  enemy  holds  a  commanding  position  on  the  line  of  march 
he  must  be  dislodged,  or  the  convoy  must  take  a  different 
road.  The  advance  cavalry  should  report  the  presence  of  the 
enemy  to  the  commander  as  soon  as  possible  when  it  is 
known,  in  order  that  the  commander  may  make  preparation 
or  any  change  that  he  may  deem  necessary.  If  menaced  by- 
small  parties  the  convoy  should  continue;  if  attacked  by  a 
superior  force  the  train  is  parked  in  a  defensive  formation 
under  the  protection  of  a  skirmish  line.  The  defence  should 
be  made  at  some  distance  from  the  convoy.  Couriers  should 
be  dispatched  to  notify  the  commander  of  the  nearest  troops. 
Should  the  enemy  be  repulsed  his  retreat  should  be  carefully 
verified  before  resuming  the  march.  If  the  train  cannot  be 
saved  the  commander  should  escape  with  the  most  valuable 
part,  destroying  the  remainder. 

Attack  of  a  Convoy— The  most  favorable  times  for 
attacking  a  convoy  are:  When  passing  through  woods;  de- 
files ;  or,  over  bridges ;  going  around  a  sharp  bend ;  on  steep 
slopes;  on  difficult  roads;  when  teams  are  being  watered; 
or  at  any  time  when  it  is  not  prepared  for  immediate  defence. 
The  convoy  should  be  forced  to  "halt.  It  should  be  thrown 


Firing-  135 

into  confusion  by  an  attack  from  an  unexpected  quarter. 
Artillery  and  machine  guns  should  be  employed  against  it. 
If  captured,  portions  which  cannot  be  carried  off  should  be 
destroyed. 

Prisoners — In  addition  to  an  escort  to  repel  attempts  at 
rescue  there  should  be  a  guard  of  ten  foot  soldiers  and 
several  mounted  men  for  every  hundred  prisoners.  Prisoners 
are  formed  in  companies  and  marched  in  column.  Their 
officers  are  marched  separately.  Prisoners  should  be  treated 
kindly,  but  warned  that  an  attempt  to  escape  will  draw  fire. 
If  the  convoy  is  attacked  the  prisoners  are  made  to  lie  down. 
At  night  they  are  guarded  in  well  lighted  buildings  or  en- 
closures. 

FIRING 

Firing  is  divided  into  the  following  classes: 
Volley  Firing,  which  has  a  very  limited  use,  is  used  in 
early  stages  of  action  against  unusual  targets.  It  may  be 
used  also  in  what  is  known  as  "fire  of  position."  When  the 
ground  is  such  that  the  effect  of  volleys  upon  it  may  be 
seen,  volley  firing  is  an  excellent  means  of  finding  the  range. 
Fire  of  Position  is  the  fire  employed  by  troops  which 
are  not  taking  part  in  the  advance  against  a  position,  to 
assist  the  troops  which  are  actually  making  the  attack.  It  is 
usually  directed  from  some  favorable  position  to  a  flank,  or 
from  some  elevated  position  in  the  rear  of  the  attackers. 
Volley  firing  is  executed  habitually  by  platoon. 

Firing  at  Will  is  the  class  of  fire  usually  employed  in 
combat.  It  is  delivered  with  deliberation,  slowly  at  the 
longer  ranges;  more  quickly  and  with  deliberation  consistent 
with  the  rapidity  required  at  lesser  ranges,  and  rapidly  where 
the  target  is  so  near  that  great  deliberation  is  not  required, 
to  render  the  fire  effective. 

Clip  Fire  has  limited  application.  It  is  used  in  early 
stages  of  combat,  to  steady  the  men,  to  cause  brief  pauses  in 
firing  and  for  short  heavy  bursts  of  fire.  .  ' 

The  operation  of  firing  consists  of  determining  and  an- 
nouncing the  range,  indicating  the  target  and  commencing 
the  fire. 

For  determination  of  ranges  see  notes  on  Small  Arms 
Manual  herein.  The  usual  method  used,  is  estimation  by  two 
or  more  men,  selected  for  their  accuracy  in  this  particular 


136  Firing 

art,  and  taking  the  mean  of  their  estimates.  This  can  be  done 
very  quickly,  when  the  range  finders  have  been  trained  to 
estimate  ranges  on  the  first  signs  of  the  enemy. 

Target  Indication — In  order  to  indicate  the  target  to 
the  men  it  is  necessary  to  do  two  (2)  things : 

(1)  Show  them  the  target  or  its  location. 

(2)  Show  them  its  extremities. 

To  show  where  the  target  is,  call  the  men's  attention  to 
some  distinct  and  conspicuous  object  near  the  target,  or  in 
line  with  it;  and  by  using  this  object  as  a  reference  point, 
endeavor  to  give  the  direction  and  distance  from  it  to  the 
target.  For  instance,  let  us  imagine  that  a  wind  (mill  or  a 
tree,  or  a  certain  house  might  be  so  situated  that  by  calling 
attention  to  "the  wind  mill  nearest  the  large  red  barn,"  or 
to  "the  north  end  of  the  white  dwelling,"  or  "the  right  of 
the  five  trees  on  the  hillside,"  the  eyes  of  the  command  will 
be  directed  in  the  general  direction  of  the  target,  and  fixed 
on  a  definite  object. 

Having  indicated  the  reference  point,  the  next  step  is  to 
announce  what  the  target  is,  so  that  the  men  will  know  what 
to  look  for.  Then  the  distance  and  direction  of  the  target 
from  the  reference  point  will  be  announced.  In  doing  this, 
the  reference  point  should  be  considered,  as  in  the  center  of 
a  clock  dial,  with  12 :00  o'clock  directly  beyond  it  and  in 
prolongation  of  a  straight  line  from  the  center  of  the  com- 
mand to  the  reference  point.  The  imaginary  figures  on  the 
dial  would  then  be  used  to  indicate  direction  from  the  re- 
ference point  to  the  target.  To  show  the  distance  from  the 
reference  point  to  the  target,  place  the  hand,  back  to  the 
front,  and  fingers  extended,  twenty  inches  (20")  from  the 
eye,  and  see  how  many  fingers  can  be  included  between  the 
target  and  the  reference  point. 

The  next  step  to  be  taken  after  the  location  of  the  "target, 
is  to  indicate  the  extremities.  The  end,  usually  that  nearest 
the  reference  point,  has  been  indicated  as  the  location.  Hold 
up  the  hand  as  before  and  see  how  many  fingers  it  takes  to 
exactly  hide  the  target,  then  give  the  direction,  right  or  left, 
of  the  first  point  located — so  many  fingers.  This  completes 
the  operation.  It  takes  a  good  many  words  to  explain  such 
a  simple  process,  but  the  execution  of  it  requires  but  a  few 
seconds. 

The  method  explained  above  is  often  satisfactory,  but  will 
not  cover  all  cases,  because  frequently  there  is  terrain,  in 
which  reference  points  are  difficult  to  find,  or  do  not  exist 


Shelter         .  137 

at  all.  When  such  is  the  case  another  simple  .method  is  to 
announce  the  target  as  being  at  such  o'clock,  which,  without 
having  referred  to  any  other  point,  means  that  the  command 
is  considered  as  being  in  the  center  of  an  imaginary  hori- 
zontal clock  dial,  with  12:00  o'clock  straight  to  the  front, 
and  that  the  target  is  in  .the  direction  corresponding  to  that 
of  the  imaginary  number  indicated. 

There  are  other  and  better  methods  than  those  indicated 
above,  but  they  take  considerable  study  and  practice,  and 
some  -of  them  require  more  or  less  special  equipment  for  such 
training. 

SHELTER 

To  maintain  efficiency  troops  must  have  shelter.  In  peace 
troops  are  usually  under  canvas  when  in  the  field.  For  in- 
surrection or  riot  duty  public  buildings  may  be  used.  Private 
buildings  are  not  used  without  the  owners'  consent.  In  war, 
public  buildings  are  used  when  necessary  to  care  for  sick  and 
wounded.  This  will  be  avoided  when  individuals  offer  shelter 
or  shelter  may  be  had  for  reasonable  rent.  Seizure  is  not 
resorted  to  except  in  emergencies.  In  enemy  territory  public 
and  private  buildings  may  be  used.  For  sanitary  reasons 
private  buildings  are  seldom  used.  In  such  cases  civil  au- 
thorities should  be  consulted.  Families  should  not  be  in- 
terfered with  when  it  can  be  avoided.  Troops  under  canvas 
are  said  to  be  in  camp.  When  on  the  ground  without  shelter 
they  are  in  bivouac.  When  in  buildings,  or  improvised 
shelter  they  are  said  to  be  in  cantonment.  Cantonments  are 
usually  developed  from  improvements  and  additions  to  camps. 
During  suspensions  of  hostilities,  and  in  severe  weather,  can- 
tonments are  advantageous.  Billeting  is  assignment  of  troops 
to  quarters  in  private  dwellings.  The  allowance  of  tentage 
for  the  field  is  provided  for  in  the  Table  of  Organization.  . 

SHELTER  IN  THE  SERVICE  OF  THE  INTERIOR 

In  mobilization  and  concentration  camps,  troops  are 
sheltered  under  canvas  or  in  temporary  barracks.  They 
should  fulfill  the  following  conditions: 

1.  Ground  easily  drained  and  sanitary.  Sufficiently 
large  for  depots,  corrals,  hospitals,  etc.,  to  permit  the  en- 
campment of  troops  without  crowding  and  provide  ample 
space  for  military  exercises. 


138  Shelter  in  Theatre  of  Operation 

2.  The    water    supply    should    be    excellent,    abundant, 
and  not  liable  to  contamination. 

3.  There  should  be  ample  facilities  for  railroad  trans- 
portation, places  for  loading  and  unloading  troops  and   sup- 
plies. 

4.  Good  wagon  roads  should  be  accessible,  all  arrange- 
ments should  be  complete  before  troops  arrive.     Units  should 
be  camped  together,  tents  pitched  and  lined,  kitchens  equip- 
ped,  water  and   fuel   supplied,    sanitary  arrangements  .made, 
provisions   made  for   mail,   telegraph   and   telephone    service, 
headquarters  should  be  centrally  located,  and  the  proper  wire 
communications  provided.     Storehouse  and  hospital  should  be 
convenient  to  railroad.    Trains  should  be  placed  so  as  not  to 
be  a  nuisance  to  the  troops.     No  individuals,  troops,  or  trains 
of  organizations,  temporarily  present  should  be  attached  to 
the  permanent  camp  personnel  if  it  can  be  avoided.    The  per- 
manent camp  personnel  should  operate  all   depots,   hospitals 
and  means   of   communication.     Troops   temporarily  present 
should  be  kept  ready  to  move. 

SHELTER  IN  THEATRE  OF  OPERATION 

Tactical  considerations  generally  control  the  location  of 
the  camp.  In  field  operations  the  equipment  of  troops  is 
limited  to  that  carried  by  the  .men  or  on  animals  or  in  trains. 
It  is  sometimes  advantageous  to  place  the  men  and  animals 
in  buildings.  During  long  periods  between  actual  hostilities 
camp  equipment  may  be  sent  to  the  troops,  and  buildings 
utilized  for  shelter.  Tactical  considerations  often  prevent  the 
occupation  of  favorable  camp-sites,  but  when  possible,  con- 
sideration must  be  given  to  sanitary  conditions.  When  tac- 
tical questions  are  not  involved  and  camp  is  to  be  occupied 
for  some  time,  great  care  should  be  exercised  in  selecting 
the  site.  Greater  losses  may  be  caused  by  lack  of  discretion 
in  such  cases  than  by  actual  combat.  The  selection  of  camp 
sites  is  covered  by  the  following  conditions : 

1.  The    camp    should    not   be    crowded,    ground    easily 
drained,  with  no  stagnant  water  near. 

2.  Water  supply  to  be  sufficient,  pure  and  accessible. 

3.  There  should  be  good  roads  to  and  within  the  camp. 

4.  Wood,  grass,  forage  and  supplies  must  be  on  hand 
or  obtainable. 

Closely  cropped  turf  with  sandy,  gravely  sub-soil  is  best. 
High  banks  of  rivers  are  suitable  if  no  marshes  are  near. 


Shelter  in  Theatre  of  Operation  139 

In  hot  weather,  ground  should  be  high,  free  from  under- 
brush and  shaded'  by  trees.  In  cold  weather  the  ground 
should  slope  to  the  south  with  woods  to  break  the  north 
winds.  Avoid  bid  campgrounds,  vicinity  of  cemeteries, 
marshy  ground,  stagnant  water,  etc.  Stagnant  water  breeds 
mosquitoes.  Avoid  thick  forests,  dense  vegetation,  marshy 
ground,  alluvial  soil,  depressions,  and  dry  beds  of  streams. 
It  should  not  be  necessary  for  troops  to  pass  through  each 
other's  camps.  To  protect  against  epidemics,  camp-sites  in 
the  theatre  of  operations  should  be  changed  every  two  or 
three  weeks.  The  formation  of  the  camp  should  be  such  as 
to  facilitate  prompt  making  and  breaking  of  camp,  and  to 
afford  'the  best  means  of  defence.  For  one  night  halts  in  the 
presence  of  the  enemy,  the  camp  might  be  more  contracted, 
but  where  tactical  reasons  will  permit,  imore  comfort  and 
sanitation  should  be  arranged  for.  Camp  is  established  pur- 
suant to  the  halt  order  which  provides  for  the  outpost  and 
the  encampment  of  the  main  body.  Usually  large  commands 
encamp  by  brigades.  The  camp  ground  may  be  selected  by 
the  Supreme  Commander,  but  in  large  commands  a  Staff 
Officer  is  usually  sent  forward  for  that  purpose.  This  officer 
should  be  accompanied  by  an  officer  from  each  brigade  and 
regiment,  and  also  a  medical  officer.  The  staff  officer  pre- 
ceding the  command  selects  the  camp  ground,  indicates  to 
each  of  the  officers  accompanying  him  the  portion  assigned 
to  their  respective  commands.  These  officers  conduct  their 
commands  to  their  camp-sites  upon  arrival.  The  staff  officer 
designates  the  places  for  obtaining  drinking  and  cooking 
water,  for  watering  animals,  for  bathing,  for  washing  cloth- 
ing in  the  order  named,  from  upstream,  down. 

When  the  troops  arrive  guards  are  posted  over  the  water 
supply.  Interior  camp  guards  march  to  their  places,  post- 
sentinels,  then  pitch  their  tents.  The  command  pitches  tents, 
cares  for  animals  and  equipment,  establish  kitchens,  send  de- 
tails for  fuel,  water,  forage,  etc.,  dig  latrines,  kitchen  pits, 
and  when  necessary  ditch  tents  and  picket  lines.  In  the  pre- 
sence of  the  enemy  places  are  designated  for  assembly  in  case 
of  attack,  and  ther  necessary  orders  given.  Lines  of  com- 
munication are  established  with  the  outposts.  When  troops 
are  to  be  billeted,  a  staff  officer  and  a  representative  from 
each  brigade  and  regiment  precede  the  column.  The  staff 
officer  confers  with  the  civil  authorities  with  a  view  to  mak- 
ing^  proper  distribution  of  troops  among  available  buildings, 
assigns  sections  to  regiments,  the  regimental  officer  provides 
for  distribution  of  their  troops  to  quarters  in  their  sections. 


140  Shelter  During-  Battle 

It  may  be  necessary  to  billet  part  of  the  troops  and  place 
others  in  shelter  or  bivouac.  As  villages  and  farms  afford 
such  facilities  as  water  supply,  bakeries^  blacksmith  shops, 
material  for  repairs,  fuel,  and  forage,  it  b  'desirable  to  halt 
near  them.  In  the  presence  of  the  enemy,  troops  are  often 
forced  to  bivouac  for  tactical  reasons.  In  good  weather  it 
may  be  preferable  to  bivouac.  For  tactical  reasons  bivouacs 
are  desirable.  For  sanitary  reasons  they  are  only  resorted 
to  when  necessary.  The  selection  of  sites  for  bivouacs  is 
covered  by  the  same  principles  as  pertain  to  camp  sites.  In 
the  artillery  the  men  usually  sleep  under  carnages  or  paulins 
on  one  night  halts, 

SHELTER  DURING  BATTLE 

When  action  ceases  for  the  night  troops  bivouac  in  line  of 
battle  oa  the  ground  occupied,  with  the  officers  in  the  rear  of 
the  center  of  their  units.  Reserves  remain  in  readiness  in 
bivouac  in  columns  with  a  flank  to  the  front.  The  com- 
mander of  the  main  body  decides  whether  the  outpost  troops 
shall  use  shelter  tents  or  not. 

SHELTER  DURING  SIEGES 

Due  to  the  long  range  of  artillery,  the  main  body  of  the 
besiegers  usually  camps  not  less  than  five  miles  from  the 
enemy,  except  when  excellent  cover  is  available  nearer.  To 
.  hold  the  enemy  to  his  lines  a  large  portion  of  the  command 
remains  on  outpost  duty.  The  outpost  is  relieved  fro,m  time 
to  time  by  fresh  troops.  Great  care  is  .exercised  to  prevent 
epidemics  in  the  crowded  camps  or  cantonments  of  the  be- 
siegers, especially  in  the  care  of  the  water  supply  and  sani- 
tation. 

CARE  OF  TROOPS 

Lack  of  sufficient  rest  renders  troops  unfit  for  hard  work 
and  diminishes  their  power  of  resisting  disease.  Therefore 
commanders  should  secure  for  the  troops,  whenever  possible, 
their  accustomed  rest. 

The  rules  of  sanitation  are  enforced. 

Men  should  not  lie  on  damp  ground.  In  temporary  camps 
and  in  bivouac  they  raise  their  beds  if  suitable  material, 
such  as  straw,  leaves,  or  boughs  can  be  obtained,  or  use  their 
ponchos  or  slickers.  In  cold  weather  and  when  fuel  is  plenti- 


Care  of  Troops  141, 

ful  the  ground  may  be  warmed  by  fires,  the  men  making 
their  beds  after  raking  away  the  ash.es. 

When  troops  are  to  remain  in  camp  for  sometime  all 
underbrush  is  cleared  away  and  the  camp  made  as  comfort- 
able as  possible.  Watering  troughs,  shelter  in  cold  weather, 
and  shade  in  hot,  are  provided  for  the  animals,  if  practic- 
able. 

In  camps  of  some  duration  guard  and  other  routine  duties 
follow  closely  the  custom  in  garrison.  The  watering,  feed- 
ing, and  grooming  of  animals  take  place  at  regular  hours 
and  under  the  supervision  of  officers. 

The  camp  is  policed  daily  after  breakfast  and  all  refuse 
matter  burned. 

Tent  walls  are  raised  and  the  bedding  and  clothing  aired 
daily,  weather  permitting. 

Arms  and  personal  equipments  xare  kept  in  the  tents  of  the 
men.  In  the  cavalry,  horse  equipments  are  also  usually  kept 
in  the  tents,  but  in  camps  of  some  duration  they  may  be 
placed  on  racks  outside  and  covered  with  slickers.  In  the 
artillery,  horse  equipments  arid  harness  are  placed  on  the 
poles  of  the  carriages  and  covered  with  paulins. 

The  water  supply  is  carefully  guarded.  When  several 
commands  are  encamped  along  the  same  stream  this  matter 
is  regulated  by  the  senior  officer. 

If  the  stream  is  small,  the  water  supply  may  be  increased 
by  building  dams.  Small  springs  may  be  dug  out  and  lined 
with  stone,  brick,  or  empty  barrels.  Surface  drainage  is 
kept  off  by  a  curb  of  clay. 

When  sterilized  water  is  not  provided,  or  when  there  is 
doubt  as  to  the  purity  of  the  water,  it  is  boiled  20  minutes, 
then  cooled  and  aerated. 

Latrines  for  the  men  are  always  located  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  camp  from  the  kitchens,  generally  one  for  each 
company  unit  and  one  for  the  officers  of  a  battalion  or 
squadron.  They  are  so  placed  that  the  drainage  or  over- 
flow can  not  pollute  the  water  supply  or  camp  grounds. 

When  the  camp  is  for  one  night  only,  straddle  trenches 
suffice.  In  camp  of  longer  duration,  and  when  it  is  not 
possible  to  provide  latrine  boxes,  as  for  permanent  camps, 
deeper  trenches  should  be  dug.  These  may  be  used  as 
straddle  trenches  or  a  seat  improved.  When  open  trenches 
are  used  the  excrement  must  be  kept  covered  at  all  times 
with  a  layer  of  earth.  In  more  permanent  camps  the  trenches 
are  not  over  2  feet  wide,  6  feet  deep,  and  12  feet  long,  and 


142  Care  of  Troops 

suitably  screened.  Seats  with  lids  are  provided  and  covered 
to  the  ground  to  keep  flies  from  reaching  the  deposits ; 
urinal  troughs  discharging  into  the  trenches  are  provided. 
Each  day  the  latrine  boxes  are  thoroughly  cleaned,  outside 
by  scrubbing  and  inside  by  applying  when  necessary  a  coat 
of  oil  or  whitewash.  The  pit  is  burned  out  daily  with  ap- 
proximately 1  gallon  oil  and  15  pounds  straw.  When  filled 
to  within  2  feet  of  the  surface,  such  latrines  are  discarded, 
filled  with  earth,  and  their  position  marked.  All  latrines  and 
kitchen  pits  are  filled  in  before  the  march  is  resumed.  In 
permanent  camps  and  cantonments,  urine  tubs  may  be  placed 
in  the  company  streets  at  night  and  emptied  after  reveille. 


CHAPTER  V. 

NOTES  ON  ELEMENTARY  INFANTRY 
INSTRUCTION 

COMMANDS 

Much  in  the  way  of  efficiency  and  in  the  manner  of  exe- 
cuting commands  depends  upon  the  manner  in  which  com- 
mands are  given.  The  giving  of  commands  may  be  likened 
to  the  loading  and  firing  of  a  rifle ;  the  preparatory  com- 
mand corresponding  to  the  loading,  and  the  command  of 
execution  the  means,  of  firing  the  piece. 

When  a  command  consists  of  more  than  one  syllable  or 
word,  the  last  sound  uttered  should  be  the  one  which  causes 
the  execution,  and  stress  should  be  laid  upon  it.  Commands 
should  not  be  permitted  to  trail  off  downward  in  tone.  They 
should  come  up  with  a  somewhat  rising  inflection  with  each 
word  and  each  syllable  clearly  and  distinctly  uttered. 
-  A  command  of  execution  should  be  given  firmly  and 
sharply,  a  very  slight  degree  higher  than  the  preparatory  com- 
mand. 

Commands  should  be  made  what  the  word  "command"  in- 
dicates. The  mere 'saying  of  the  words  prescribed  in  a  text 
does  not  suffice.  Commands  must  be  given  with  confidence 
and  firmness  and  with  a  feeling  and  knowledge  that  they 
are  going  to  be  executed ;  that  there  is  no  doubt  about  it 
whatever.  This  is  particularly  true  when  training  new  men. 
With  a  thoroughly  trained  organization,  excellent  results  are 
obtained  by  giving  commands  in  a  very  ordinary  tone  of 
voice. 

Before  entering  upon  a  period  of  instruction,  the  instructor 
should  determine  what  movements  he  intends  to  teach  and 
the  proper  commands  and  the  proper  execution.  This  is  im- 
portant, in  fact,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  and  it  is  one  thing- 
above  all  that  an  instructor  should  remeimber.  Teach  a  little 
at  a  time  and  teach  it  thoroughly. 

In  order  to  obtain  practice  in  the  use  of  the  "tools"  which 
are  furnished  in  the  infantry  drill  regulations,  one  should 
assume  every  formation  imaginable  and  make  changes  from 
these  formations  to  every  other  conceivable  formation.  The 
drill  regulations  permit  of  any  movement  that  is  desirable 
and  which  may  become  necessary.  It  is  for  the  student 

143 


144  Commands 

therefore,  to  practice  shifting  from  one  formation  to  another, 
keeping  in  view  the  importance  of  economy  in  movement, 
time  and  command.  This  practice  might  be  conducted  with 
matches  or  groups  of  toy  soldiers. 

One  should  continually  examine  himself  in  infantry  drill 
regulations,  setting  himself  problems  to  solve.  It  has  been 
found  by  experience  that  most  civilian  soldiers  when  con- 
fronted with  some  simple  problem  which  has  not  been  de- 
finitely described  in  the  drill  regulations  is  unable  to  apply 
principles  and  methods.  For  instance :  In  examining  a  great 
many  applicants  for  commissions  in  the  Reserve  Corps  it  has 
been  found  that  nine  out  of  ten  of  the  candidates  were  un- 
able to  change  the  front  of  .a  line  in  close  order  formation 
from  facing  North  to  slightly  East  of  North  on  the  right 
guide  as  a  pivot.  The  trouble  was  this :  They  would  fre- 
quently say  that  there  was  no  command  for  such  a  movement 
or  they  would  give  "Platoon  Right"  or  "Platoon,  Half- 
right";  then  salute  respectfully  and  say  that  there  was  no 
command  for  forming  at  any  other  angle  than  45  degrees 
and  90  degrees  to  the  original  line.  When  shown  the  simple 
,method  of  facing  the  guide  in  the  desired  direction  and 
commanding  "Right  Dress"  and  then  "Front"  the  candidate 
has  usually  felt  like  kicking  himself  thoroughly.  And  so  it 
is  with  all  the  other  movements  which  are  desirable,  but 
which  are  not  actually,  prescribed  in  detail. 

My  idea  in  writing  these  notes  is  to  make  the  student  think 
and  do  his  thinking  and  ,mental  training  beforehand,  and  not 
wait  to  practice  on  a  long  suffering  detachment  of  men.  Re- 
member this,  that  the  detachment  or  squad  under  instruction 
is  there  to  be  instructed  and  not  merely  to  be  practiced  upon. 
Remember  this  also,  that  when  certain  points  are  not  clear 
and  the  explanation  cannot  be  found  in  the  drill  regulations, 
go  or  write  to  some  regular  army  officer  and  ask  him  to 
explain  to  you  what  is  written  "between  the  lines"  on  the 
subject. 

With  a  view  toward  economy  of  time,  energy  and  command, 
the  following  are  suggestions  :  Always  command  "At  Trail"  for 
movements  involving  short  distances;  making  the  men  come 
to  the  right  shoulder  and  to  the  order  again  immediately  is 
a  waste  of  energy  and  should  only  be  done  for  the  purpose 
of  drill  and  practice;  to  cause  a  slight  change  in  the  direc- 
tion in  which  a  line  is  facing-,  have  the  proper  guide  face  in 
the  required  direction  and  command  "Right  Dress  Front:" 
to  move  backward  short  distances,  command  "About  Face, 
at  trail,  forward  march;"  or  if  the  distance  to  be  moved  is 


Commands  145 

only  a  few  paces,  command  "Backward  march;"  to  move 
short  distances  to  the  right  or  left,  command  "Right  (or 
Left)  face,  at  trail,  forward  march — Company  (Platoon  or 
Squad)  Halt,  left  (or  right)  face;"  if  the  distance  to  be 
moved  is  but  a  few.  feet,  command  "Right  step  (or  left  step) 
march,  Company  (Platoon  or  Squad)  Halt." 

Note:  It  has  been  found  in  practice  that  best  and  quick- 
est results  can  be  -obtained  in  halting  from  this  movement  by 
giving  the  command  "Halt"  as  the  feet  are  brought  together. 
This  gives  two  counts  in  which  to  halt  and  a  third  count  for 
coming  to  the  order.  This  is  desirable,  because,  when  march- 
ing backward  or  forward  at  trail,  "halt"  is  executed  in  two 
counts  and  the  piece  is  brought  to  the  order  on  the  third 
count. 

One  of  the  principal  mistakes  made,  which,  while  fairly 
unimportant,  nevertheless  produces  a  bad  impression  upon  the 
professional  soldier,  is  the  unnecessary  prefacing  of  all  com- 
mands by  "Company,"  "Platoon"  or  "Squad."  The  term 
"Company,"  "Platoon"  or  "Squad"  is  only  given  before  the 
commands  "Right,"  "Halt,"  and  "Attention." 

Illustration  and  Demonstration — The  instructor  should 
maintain  scrupulously  the  position  of  a  soldier  in  all  its 
details  while  his  men  are  "At  Attention,"  and  should  never 
assume  a  "Rest"  position  except  as  prescribed  for  platoon 
commanders  during  inspection.  It  is  highly  important  that 
the  men  who  are  trying  to  learn  have  before  them  the  correct 
picture  and  example  of  a  soldier.  This  is  exceedingly  im- 
portant. The  instructor  should  consider  himself  on  duty 
practically  all  the  time,  as  by  his  mere  deportment  and  mili- 
tary attitude  he  is  unconsciously  instructing  those  under  him. 
He  should  set  the  highest  possible  standard  for  himself  and 
then  live  up  to  it. 

It  is  important  that  the  instructor  not  only  describe  orally 
movements  in  the  manual  of  arms,  facing,  marching,  etc., 
but  he  should  illustrate  them  all  slowly,  carefully  and  in 
detail,  explaining  in  the  simplest' words  possible,  everything 
so  that  the  student  is  not  left  in  doubt  in  regard  to  any  par- 
ticular point. 

Unless  the  instructor  is  thoroughly  prepared  on  the  matter 
involved  in  the  day's  work,  poor  results  follow.  This  has 
been  the  trouble  with  most  of  the  amateur  military  instruc- 
tion that  has  been  given  in  this  country. 

The  instructor  should  be  careful  not  to  show  disgust  for 
men  who  find  it  difficult  to  "catch  on"  easily  at  first.  He 


146  Commands 

should  give  them  his  personal  attention.  For  the  instruction 
of  men  who  are  more  than  ordinarily  awkward  and  who  ap- 
pear to  be  a  little  dense  in  the  matter  of  absorbing  military 
ideas,  the  very  best  instructor  should  be  detailed.  If  neces- 
sary, the  captain  should  give  him  (much  personal  attention. 
The  captain  is  the  best  instructor  in  the  company.  If  he  is 
not,  he  should  proceed  to  make  himself  so. 

Faulty  Drill — The  instructor,  while  keeping  himself  and 
his  men  keen  on  the  work  in  hand,  should  never  lose  his 
temper,  or  blame  the  company  or  squad  if  the  drill  is  not 
good.  If  the  results  are  poor,  it  is  always  due  to  fault  on 
the  part  of  the  instructor.  I  have  never  seen  a  detachment 
of  recruits  that  could  not  learn  to  drill  well  in  a  very  short 
time.  I  have  had  detachments  drill  poorly  and  have  been 
exasperated  by  their  performance,  but  have  always  had  to 
admit  to  myself  that  the  fault  was  my  own.  When  a  de- 
tachment is  drilling  poorly  and  does  not  seem  able  to  improve, 
the  instructor  would  better  give  "Rest"  or  "Fall  out"  and 
give  himself  an  opportunity  to  think  a  little.  He  will  soon 
discover  the  cause.  He  has  either  drilled  the  men  too  long 
or  allowed  the  cadence  to  become  too  fast,  or  has  not  paid 
attention  to  the  march  of  the  guide;  or  else  his  commands 
for  some  reason  are  not  understood.  There  are  always  a 
number  of  reasons,  any  one  of  which  will  seriously  affect 
drill.  If  he  has  overdone  the  work  for  the  period  and  unduly 
fatigued  his  men,  he  would  do  well  to  dismiss  them,  and  the 
chances  are  that  the  next  drill  will  be  thoroughly  satisfactory. 

There  is  a  tendency  on  the  part  of  many  of  us  who  are 
keen  about  drill  and  other  instruction  to  forget  that  our  men 
are  not  so  intensely  interested  or  physically  prepared  as  we 
are.  It  is,  therefore,  necessary  to  hold  ourselves  in  check 
sometimes  and  only  endeavor  to  instill  into  our  men  the 
amount  of  enthusiasm  and  training  that  they  are  capable  of 
accepting  at  the  time. 

The  instructor's  attitude  towards  military  training  is  im- 
portant to  his  men.  A  command  reflects  its  commander  every 
time.  One  of  the  most  noticeable  mistakes  on  the  part  of 
instructors  is  their  tendency  to  continue  to  practice  those 
things  in  which  the  Company  or  detachment  is  most  pro- 
ficient. While  the  men  should  be  kept  in  practice  in  all  the 
details  of  drill,  the  greater  amount  of  time  should  be  spent 
upon  those  details  which  are  less  understood  and  worst  ex- 
ecuted. 

The  men  must  be  encouraged  to  feel  that  the  Company  is 


Commands  147 

their  Company  as  well  as  the  captain's.  Each  man  in  the 
Company  either  tends  to  raise  or  lower  its  efficiency.  They 
should  all  be  reminded  of  this  fact  from  time  to  time,  in 
order  that  those  who  are  below  the  average  will  keep  con- 
stantly trying  to  increase  their  efficiency. 

Team  play  in  the  Company  is  essential.  All  the  members 
of  a  company  should  bend  their  efforts  to  help  those  who 
are  most  backward. 

In  drill,  the  instructor  should  exact  snap  and  precision. 
He  should  never  be  satisfied  with  mediocre  results.  He 
should  have  fixed  in  his  mind  a  picture  of  the  manner  in 
which  movements  were  executed  by  the  best  drilled  company 
he  ever  saw  and  he  should  feel  that  he  can  do  at  least  as 
well  with  his.  The  material  in  companies  is  of  a  more  or 
less  uniform  average.  My  rule  has  been  to  establish  a  mark 
which  it  is  not  quite  possible  to  attain,  and  then  to  get  as 
near  to  it  as  possible. 

The  question  often  arises  as  to  whether  or  not  instruction 
should  be  given  exactly  in  the  words  of  the  book.  While 
the  explanations  given  in  the  drill  regulations  are  the  most 
concise  possible,  it  sometimes  happens  that  men  with  keen 
ability  to  memorize  will  give  instructions  verbatim  without 
knowing  their  .meaning.  I  hold  that  if  a  man  can  give  an 
explanation  which,  if  complied  with  will  bring  about  the  cor- 
rect execution  and  preclude  the  possibility  of  any  wrong  ex- 
ecution, the  explanation  is  satisfactory.  If  the  explanation  is 
not  in  the  same  words  as  the  text,  I  feel  sure  that  the  per- 
son giving  it  understands  its  meaning,  or  else  he  could  not 
have  interpreted  it  correctly.  Often  an  explanation  which 
is  an  attempt  at  repeating  the  words  of  the  text,  while  sound- 
ing .somewhat  like  the  text,  will  be  rendered  -impossible  of 
execution  due  to  the  wrong  substitution  of  right  for  left.  If 
an  instructor  knows  every  detail  of  the  movement  he  is  ex- 
plaining, the  choice  of  words  he  uses  should  not  worry  him. 

In  explaining  movements  to  recruits,  or  new  men,  it  is  best 
to  express  ideas  in  the  language  of  the  recruit.  At  first  use 
short,  simple,  well  known  words  where  they  can  be  substi- 
tuted for  the  .military  and  technical.  One  will  gain  the 
energy  which  would  otherwise  be  expended  in  an  effort  to 
understand  new  terms,  and  the  men  will  unconsciously  be- 
come acquainted  with  military  phraseology. 

Never  present  more  than  two  ideas  at  a  time  and  limit 
yourself  to  ten  words  for  each  idea.  Repeat  the  idea  in 
different  words  if  necessary,  but  strive  for  clarity  and  brevity. 
Let  them  make  mistakes  and  correct  the  mistakes.  It  is 


148  Commands 

quicker  and  easier  than  cautioning  against  every  mistake 
which  might  be  made. 

The  Men — Absolute  steadiness  must  be  required  of  the 
men  in  ranks.  'They  should  never  be  allowed  to  assume  a 
rest  position  without  command. 

An  error  frequently  noticed  by  me  has  been  the  forgetting 
on  thft^part  of  the  instructor  that  he  has  not  given  the  com- 
mand "Rest"  or  "At  ease,"  and  allowing  the  men  little  by 
little,  to  assume  positions  of  rest.  When  the  men  are  "At 
attention,"  they  should  be  at  attention  continuously  and  when 
"At  rest"  it  should  be  in  consequence  of  a  command.  In- 
structors should. keep  this  point  in  mind. 

As  to  steadiness  it  might  be  said  that  nothing  so  indicates 
discipline  in  a  command  as  the  steadiness  of  its  ranks.  By 
steadiness  I  mean 'absolute  immobility..  Not  even  the  eyes 
should  move.  Practice  in  coming  from  rest  or  at  ease  to 
attention,  and  in  falling  in,  should  be .  had  frequently,  and 
stress  laid  upon  the  necessity  of  the  men  remaining  motion- 
less. This  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  parts  of  the  early  in- 
struction, but  inasmuch  -as  it  develops  self-control,  it  is  of 
great  importance. 

Furthermore,  unless  men  are  .motionless,  some  part  of  their 
being  is  engaged  in  creating  motion  when  the  whole  indi- 
vidual should  be  giving  his  attention  to  what  is  being  said 
and  done.  Motion  takes  brain  energy  and  muscular  energy. 
It  may  be  a  sub-conscious,  but  it  is  never  an  unconscious 
movement.  What  the  instructor  demands  is  the  attention  of 
the  whole  being. 

The  Manual  of  Arms — In  executing  the  manual  of  arms, 
the  various  movements  should  be  executed  by  quick,  snappy 
motions  or  jerks,  separated  by  slight  pauses. 

Each  motion  of  the  hands  should  be  in  the  quickest  pos- 
sible .manner.  In  certain  movements  where  the  hands  move 
but  a  short  distance,  there  is  often  a  tendency  on  the  part  of 
an  individual  to  try  to  waste  the  time  between  the  pauses 
by  moving  the  hand  out  of  a  straight  line  in  going  from  one 
position  to  another.  This  is  wrong.  If  time  is  to  be  wasted 
or  used  up,  it  should  be  used  up  by  increasing  the  length  of 
the  pauses,  and  every  movement  should  be  made  as  quickly 
as  possible. 

Manual — In  instructing,  results  can  be  more  quickly  ob- 
tained by  the  instructor  taking  a  rifle  himself  and  actually 
doing  the  movement  as  an  example  of  what  is  expected.  This 
often  effectively  takes  the  place  of  long  winded  explanations. 


Commands  149 

Extended  Order — While  the  student  usually  manages 
to  understand  and  execute  deployments  straight  to  the  front 
or  straight  to  the  flank,' it  has  been  found  that  most  of  them 
are  unable  to  handle  a  situation  involving  a  simple  deploy- 
ment at  other  angles.  No  matter  from  what  direction  one 
is  fired  upon,  the  commands  or  signals  for  deployment  which 
are  prescribed  in  the  drill  regulations  are  quite  sufficient.  It 
is  only  necessary  for  the  commander  to  cause  the  base  squad 
or  platoon  to  deploy  facing,  and  parallel,  to  the  enemy's  line. 
This  base  group  having  quickly  deployed  in  its  proper  posi- 
tion, the  leaders  of  other  groups  simply  and  promptly  extend 
the  line  thus  established. 

This  is  so  simple  if  one  knows  how,  yet  nine  out  of  ten 
of  the  candidates  for  Reserve  commissions,  seem  at  a 
loss  to  know  what  to  do  when  confronted  with  a  simple 
problem  involving  a  deployment  at  an  angle.  The  method 
used  for  giving  the  base  squad  its  position  and  direction  may 
vary.  The  Company  commander  may  direct  the  corporal  by 
signal  or  words  to  deploy,  as  required  by  the  situation,  or 
one  of  the  Company  officers  "or  guides  may  be  directed  to 
superintend  the  placing  of  it. 

Without  particular  instructions  from  higher  authority,  the 
leader  of  the  squad  should  be  so  trained  that  at  the  com- 
mand for  deployment  he  will  assume  the  proper  position  of 
formation  and  direction  with  his  squad  or  other  group.  The 
methods  used  are  businesslike  and  informal. 

In  combat  exercises  of  all  kinds,  involving  the  deployment 
of  companies  and  parts  of  companies,  Sufficient  practice 
should  be  held  from  time  to  time  to  cause  instant  and  proper 
formation  to  be  taken  to  meet  every  conceivable  emergency. 
Simple  combat  principles  should  be  taught  and  practiced  so 
much  that  the  officers  and  men  execute  them  instinctively. 
They  should  not  have  to  stop  to  think  of  what  command  to 
give  in  emergencies. 

One  of  the  basic  principles  to  teach  and  practice  is  the  im- 
mediate and  prompt  taking  of  cover  or  deployment,  as  the 
case  may  require.  In  deploying  it  is  essential  that  the  line 
face  as  nearly  as  possible  the  direction  in  which  it  is  to  fire. 
The  deployment  on  a  very  oblique  line  is  to  be  avoided  as 
the  men  interfere  with  each  other  in  handling  their  pieces 
and  the  muzzles  of  the  rifles  are  brought  near  to  the  ears 
of  the  men,  causing,  upon  discharge,  great  pain  and  often 
rupturing  the  ear  drums.  When  it  is  necessary  to  form  such 
an  oblique  line,  each  squad  should  form  a  straight  line, 
parallel  to  the  enemy's  line. 


150  Commands 

The  groups  thus  formed  are  said  to  be  in  eschel-on.  This 
formation  permits  of  each  squad's  firing  directly  to  its  front 
without  interfering  with  the  others  and  also  permits  the 
Company  to  open  fire  with  less  loss  of  time  than  would  be 
required  were  each  squad  to  wait  until  it  formed  line  on  the 
base  squad. 

While  the  following  method  is  not  prescribed  in  the  In- 
fantry Drill  Regulations,  it  is  permissible  and  recommended 
as  a  proper  means  of  imeeting  an  emergency: 

Let  us  assume  that  a  company  has  been  fired  upon  at  short 
range  by  a  hostile  troop  which  has  surprised  or  evaded  the 
flanking  patrol — two  things  are  necessary  immediately,  the 
taking  of  cover  and1  the  employment  of  fire.  If  the  command 
"Take  cover"  be  given,  the  company  will  be  in  no  formation 
from  which  to  deliver  a  fire.  If  the  command  to  deploy  be 
given,  too  much  time  would  be  required  during  which  there 
would  be  no  fire  delivered.  Each  company  should  be  trained, 
therefore,  that  the  signal  or  command  "Squads;  right"  and 
"Take  cover,"  the  front  rank  will  form  line  instantly  and 
take  cover  in  the  ditch  on  the  right  side  of  the  road  while  the 
rear  rank  will  take  cover  in  the  ditch  behind.  They  should 
further  be  trained  that  in  such  emergencies,  pieces  should  be 
unlocked  and  aimed  in  readiness  for  the  immediate  delivery 
of  fire.  With  such  procedure  the  entire  front  rank  can  em- 
ploy fire  without  delay.  The  subsequent  deployment,  if 
necessary,  would  be  made  by  squads  from  the  right  or  left, 
each  squad  rushing  forward  under  cover  of  the  fire  of  the 
front  rank  and  deploying  on  the  line  of  the  first  advance. 
The  front  rank  would,  necessarily  cease  firing  as  it  becomes 
overlapped  by  the  advancing  squads.  This  difficulty  could  be 
overcome  to  some  extent  by  the  rushing  of  the  first  squad 
somewhat  off  to  the  right  or  left  before  halting.  This  ^scheme 
is  one  for  emergency  only  and  should  be  practiced  with  that 
idea  in  view. 

Should  there  be  a  stone  wall  or  other  suitable  cover  on 
the  side  of  the  road  toward  the  enemy,  the  front  rank  should 
rush  to  it  and  prepare  for  firing  over  it  immediately  while 
the  rear  rank  should  take  cover  in  its  proper  place  with  rela- 
tion to  the  front  rank.  From  such  a  position  deployment 
could  be  made  by  squads  from  each  end  of  ^the  company 
creeping  out  under  cover  of  the  wall  to  positions  approxi- 
mating their  proper  positions  in  the  extended  line. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

CAVALRY 

CARE  OF  HORSES 

GENERAL  PROVISIONS 

A  most  important  duty  of  the  cavalry  officer  is  keeping  his 
horses  in  such  training  and  health  as  will  enable  them  to  do 
their  work  to  the  best  advantage.  The  proper  performance 
of  this  duty  requires  careful  instruction  of  the  men  in  the 
treatment,  stabling,  management,  watering,  feeding,  groom- 
ing, and  exercising  of  the  horses,  and  such  continuous  super- 
vision and  inspection  by  officers  as  will  insure  that  instruc- 
tions are  understood  and  are  being  carried  out. 

Cavalry  officers  should  make  themselves  thoroughly  ac- 
quainted with  the  natural  history  and  physiology  of  the  horse, 
and  with  the  effects  of  different  methods  of  treatment, 
changes  of  diet,  etc.,  upon  his  system  and  powers  of  en- 
durance. 

They  should  have  a  familiar  knowledge  of  the  symptoms 
and  methods  of  treatment  of  the  diseases  that  are  common 
to  horses,  what  to  do  in  emergencies,  and  a  good  knowledge 
of  the  effects  of  the  medicines  supplied  to  the  squadron. 
They  should  also  be  practically  familiar  with  the  .principles 
of  horseshoeing. 

Sore  backs  are  as  a  rule,  the  result  of  carelessness  or 
neglect;  the  immediate  cause  may  be  faulty  adjustment  of 
the  saddle  or  equipment  or  bad  riding. 

At  each  halt  officers  and  noncommissioned  officers  should 
inspect  the  adjustment  of  saddles  and  equipment  of  their 
men  and  should  at  no  time  tolerate  lounging  in  the  saddle. 

Horses  when  received  in  the  regiment  are  assigned  to 
squadrons  according  to  color,  under  direction  of  the  com- 
manding officer.  They  are  branded  on  the  hoof  of  one  fore 
foot  with  the  letter  of  the  squadron  and  the  number  of  the 
regiment  on  the  same  line;  as  D  7.  Their  purchase  num- 
ber is  found  tatooed  on  the  inside  of  the  upper  lip. 

Captains  make  permanent  assignments  of  horses;  after  a 
horse  is  so  assigned,  his  rider  will  not  exchange  him  nor 
allow  him  to  be  used  by  any  other  person  without  permission. 

151 


152  Stable  Management 

STABLE  MANAGEMENT 
RULES  FOR  THE  CARE  OF  HORSES 

All  troopers  must  be  taught  and  must  thoroughly  under- 
stand the  following  rules  for  the  care  of  horses : 

Horses  require  gentle  treatment.  Docile  but  bold  horses 
are  apt  to  retaliate  upon  those  who  abuse  them,  while  per- 
sistent kindness  often  reclaims  vicious  animals. 

Before  entering  a  horse's  stall  and  when  coming  up  behind 
him,  speak  to  him  gently,  then  approach  quietly. 

Never  kick,  strike  about  the  head,  or  otherwise  abuse  a 
horse. 

Never  punish  a  horse  except  at  the  time  he  commits  an 
offence,  and  then  only  in  a  proper  manner. 

Give  the  horse  an  opportunity  to  drink  before  leaving  the 
picket  line  or  stable,  and  before  putting  the  bit  in  his  mouth. 
In  cold  weather  warm  the  bit  before  putting  it  in  the  horse's 
mouth. 

Never  take  a  rapid  gait  until  the  horse  has  been  warmed 
by  gentle  exercise. 

When  a  horse  is  brought  to  the  stable  or  picket  line  in  a 
heated  condition,  never  allow  him  to  stand  uncovered,  put  a 
blanket  on  him  and  rub  his  legs,  or  walk  him  until  he  is 
cool.  If  he  is  wet,  put  him  under  shelter,  not  in  a  draft,  and 
rub  him  with  a  wisp  until  dry. 

Never  feed  grain  to  a  horse  when  heated.  Hay  will  not 
hurt  a  horse  however  heated  he  may  be. 

Never  water  a  horse  when  heated,  unless  the  exercise  or 
march  is  to  be  injmediately  resumed.  Sponging  out  the  mouth 
and  nostrils  is  refreshing  to  the  heated  horse  and  will  not 
hurt  him. 

Never  throw  water  on  any  part  of  a  horse  when  heated. 

Never  allow  a  horse's  back  to  be  cooled  suddenly.  To  cool 
the  back  gradually,  remove  the  blanket  and  replace  it  with 
the  dry  side  next  the  horse, 'and  replace  the  saddle,  girthing 
it  loosely. 

Never  put  the  horse  up  for  the  night  until  he  is  thoroughly 
clean,  especially  around  his  legs,  pasterns,  and  feet. 

Individual  men  returning  from  mounted  duty  or  pass  will 
report  their  return  to  the  noncommissioned  officer  in  charge 
of  stables,  who  will  inspect  each  horse  and  see  that  he  is 
properly  cared  for. 


Stables    and   Stable   Management  153 

STABLES  AND  STABLE  MANAGEMENT 

Foul  air  and  dampness  are  the  causes  of  many  diseases  of 
the  horse;  hence  the  importance  and  economy  of  spacious, 
clean,  dry,  and  well-ventilated  stables. 

The  picket  line  should  be  established  in  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  the  stable.  The  floor  of  the  picket  line  should  be 
raised,  and  trenches  to  carry  off  the  rain  should  be  provided, 
so  that  the  ground  upon  which  the  horses  stand  may  be  kept 
dry. 

Paddocks  with  shade  and  water,  should  be  provided  near 
the  stables;  if  there  is  no  shade,  shelter  from  the  sun  should 
be  extemporized.  The  picket  line  and  paddock  should  be 
sprinkled  to  keep  down  the  dust;  crude  oil  may  be  used  to 
advantage.  Bedding  racks  should  be  provided  near  each 
stable. 

The  horses  are  assigned  stalls  and  places  on  the  picket  line 
by  platoons,  and  xas  nearly  as  practicable  according  to  their 
usual  place  in  ranks.  The  name  and  hoof  number  of  the 
horse  with  the  name  of  his  rider  is  placed  over  the  stall. 

The  stable  sergeant  takes  immediate  charge  of  the  stables, 
picket  line  and  paddock,  forage,  and  stable  property  in  gen- 
eral. 

The  stable  sergeant  is  responsible  that  the  stables  and  their 
surroundings  are  kept  at  all  times  thoroughly  policed  and 
free  from  smells ;  he  is  usually  assisted  by  one  or  more  stable 
orderlies. 

Sufficient  men  are  detailed  as  stable  police  to  perform  the 
general  police  and  except  at  night  to  collect  all  manure  as 
soon  as  it  is  dropped,  either  in  stable,  on  the  picket  line,  or 
in  the  paddocks.  The  stable  police  also  assist  in  the  feeding, 
watering,  and  bedding  of  the  horses. 

Manure  and  foul  litter  must  not  be  allowed  to  accumulate 
in  or  near  the  stables,  but  must  be  carried  to  the  manure 
heap  daily. 

In  the  morning,  stalls  are  cleaned  and  the  stables  policed 
under  direction  of  the  stable  sergeant. 

The  bedding  is  taken  up,  carefully  shaken  out,  and  sorted. 
All  parts  of  the  bedding  which  can  be  used  again  are  taken 
to  the  bedding  racks  and  spread  thereon  for  a  thorough  dry- 
ing; parts  which  can  not  be  used  again  are  sent  to  the 
.  manure  heap.  Special  attention  is  necessary  in  this  matter, 
as  the  allowance  of  straw  is  insufficient  under  most  favorable 
conditions.  In  the  evening  the  dried  bedding,  mixed  with 
such  fresh  straw  or  bedding  as  may  be  necessary,  is  laid 


154  Stalble    Duty 

down.  The  bed  must  be  soft  and  even,  with  the  thickest  part 
toward  the  manger. 

If  practicable,  all  woodwork  within  reach  of  the  horses 
shoulders,  back,  belly,  flanks,  loin,  and  rump.  The  prin- 
coat  of  gas  tar;  other  woodwork  and  brick  should  be  painted 
a  light  shade  and  then  kept  clean  and  free  from  dust. 

Feed  boxes  must  be  kept  clean ;  they  should  be  washed 
from  time  to  time  with  dilute  vinegar  and  always  after  feed- 
ing bran  mash  or  other  soft  food. 

During  the  day,  except  in  very  cold  or  stormy  weather,  the 
horses,  when  not  being  used  or  fed,  should  stand  at  the  picket 
line  or  in  the  paddocks.  In  hot  climates,  however,  if  there 
is  not  sufficient  shade  on  the  picket  line  or  in  the  padd-ocks, 
it  is  better  to  keep  the  horses  in  the  stables  during  the  heat 
of  the  day. 

Smoking  in  the  stables  is  prohibited. 

One  or  more  covered  lights  should  be  provided  in  the 
stables  at  night. 

STABLE  DUTY 

Captains  are  responsible  for  the  proper  performance  of 
stable  duty.  In  addition  to  the  grooming,  they  will  require 
such  other  duty  as  may  be  necessary  to  keep  the  stables, 
horses,  and  equipment  in  proper  condition. 

Mounted  work  .must  be  followed  immediately  by  "stables" ; 
the  horses  are  then  thoroughly  groomed,  the  saddlery  cleaned 
and  put  away  in  perfect  order. 

All  squadron  officers  will  be  present  at  this  time,  the  platoon 
leaders  superintending  the  work  of  their  platoons. 

The  horses  should  also  be  brushed  off  before  going  out 
to  drill  or  exercise  in  the  morning,  and  in  the  evening  before 
being  led  in. 

GROOMING 

Grooming  is  essential  to  the  general  health  and  condition 
of  the  domesticated  horse.  Horses  improperly  groomed,  with 
ragged  manes,  unkempt  pasterns,  and  feet  improperly  looked 
after,  are  an  indication  of  an  inefficient  organization.  Clean 
horses  properly  equipped  and  smartly  turned  out  add  to  the 
esprit  of  an  organization  and  give  a  fair  indication  of  its 
discipline  and  efficiency. 

The  grooming  is  done  by  platoon,  under  the  supervision 
of  the  platoon  commander  and  the  platoon  sergeant,  assisted 
by  the  noncommissioned  officers  of  the  platoon. 


Grooming  155 

It  is  not  to  be  done  in  a  formal  or  routine  (manner  but  in 
such  a  way  as  to  bring  results.  Unless  it  is  done  in  the 
stable,  or  where  there  will  be  danger  of  fire,  the  men  will  be 
allowed  to  smoke,  and  cheerful  but  not  disorderly  conversa- 
tion will  be  encouraged.  When  a  trooper  has  finished  his 
work  and  it  has  been  inspected,  he  should  be  allowed  to 
attend  to  other  duties  or  be  dismissed. 

According  to  circumstances,  the  platoon  or  the  squadron 
may  be  marched  to  or  from  the  stables  or  the  men  may  be 
allowed  to  go  and  return  individually. 

On  returning  from  a  drill  or  exercise,  and  usually  in  the 
field,  the  horses  are  unbridled,  girths  are  loosened,  and  they 
are  watered  and  fed.  The  men  are  then  free  to  put  on  stable 
clothes,  relieve  themselves,  and  prepare  for  the  work  of 
grooming  and  to  care  for  their  equipments  while  the  horses' 
backs  are  being  cooled  under  the  pressure  of  the  saddle. 
The  men  then  begin  their  stable  work  comfortably  and  de- 
liberately. 

The  captain  or  the  officer  jn  charge  supervises  generally 
the  grooming  and  care  of  saddlery  of  the  platoons,  holding 
the  platoon  commander  responsible  and  calling  his  attention 
to  any  deficiencies  or  neglects. 

The  first  sergeant  assists  the  captain  or  officer  in  charge 
in  coordinating  the  work  of  the  platoons  and  stable  force. 

The  horses  of  the  officers,  of  the  first  sergeant,  and  of  the 
four  platoon  sergeants  are  groomed  by  designated  troopers. 
All  other  noncommissioned  officers  and  men  groom  their  own 
mounts.  Extra  horses  and  those  whose  riders  are  absent  are 
groomed  by  men  assigned  to  the  work  by  the  platoon  sergeant. 

The  principal  use  of  the  currycomb  is  to  clean  the  brush, 
and  for  this  purpose  a  piece  of  hard  wood  with  channels 
along  its  surface  answers  equally  well. 

The  currycomb  should  never  be  used  on  the  legs  from  the 
knees  and  hocks  downward  nor  about  the  head,  and  when 
occasionally  required  to  loosen  dried  mud  or  matted  hair  on 
the  fleshy  parts  of  the  body  it  must  be  applied  gently. 

To  groom  the  horse  proceed  as  follows : 

Take  the  currycomb  in  the  right  hand,  fingers  over  back 
of  comb,  and  the  brush  in  the  left  hand;  first  clean  the  legs 
of  the  near  side,  then  take  the  currycomb  in  the  left  hand 
and  the  brush  .in  the  right  and  clean  the  legs  of  the  off  side. 
The  legs  will  thus  have  time  to  dry  while  the  rest  of  the 
grooming  is  being  done.  Next  return  to  the  near  side,  change 
the  brush  and  comb  into  the  other  hands  and  begin  brushing 
at  the  upper  part  of  the  neck,  the  mane  being  thrown  to  the 


156  Grooming- 

other  side  out  of  the  way;  thence  proceed  to  the  chest, 
shoulders,  back,  belly,  flanks,  loins,  and  rump.  The  prin- 
cipal working  of  the  brush  should  follow  the  direction  of  the 
hair,  but  in  places  difficult  to  clean  it  may  be  necessary  to 
brush  against  it,  finishing  by  leaving  the  hair  smooth.  After 
every  few  strokes  clean  the  brush  from  dust  with  the  curry- 
comb. 

In  using  the  brush  the  man  should  stand  well  away  from 
the  horse,  should  keep  his  arm  stiff,  and  should  throw  the 
weight  of  the  body  against  the  brush. 

Having  finished  the  near  side,  again  take  the  brush  in  the 
right  hand  and  the  currycomb  in  the  left  hand  and  begin  on 
the  off  side. 

Having  done  with  the  brush,  rub  or  dust  off  the  horse  with 
the  grooming  cloth,  wipe  about  the  face,  eyes,  and  nostrils, 
arrange  the  mane  and  tail,  and  clean  the  dock.  Finally  go 
over  the  legs  once  more  and  clean  out  the  hoofs.  In  clean- 
ing the  mane  and  tail  begin  brushing  at  the  end  of  the  hair 
and  gradually  work  up  to  the  roots,  separating  the  locks  with 
the  fingers  so  as  to  get 'out  all  scurf  and  dirt.  Tails  require 
frequent  washing  with  warm  •  water  and  soap.  The  skin 
under  the  flank  and  between  the  hind  quarters  must  be  soft, 
clean,  and  free  fro.ni  dust.  . 

Currycombs,  cards,  or  common  combs  must  never  be  ap- 
plied to  the  mane  or  tail;  the  brush,  fingers,  and  cloth  are 
freely  used  on  both. 

The  wisp  is  used  when  the  horse  comes  in  wet  and  also 
for  stimulating  the  coat.  It  is  made  by  twisting  or  plaiting 
straw  into  a  rope.  The  ends  are  then  bent  together,  cut  off 
square,  and  rubbed  on  a  board  until  they  form  a  soft  even 
straw  brush. 

The  wisp  should  be  worked  forward  and  backward  well 
into  the  coat,  so  that  .full  advantage  may  be  obtained  from 
the  friction.  After  finishing  with  the  wisp  the  coat  should 
be  laid  flat. 

Hand  rubbing  is  beneficial.  When  a  horse  has  had  very 
hard,  exhausting  work,  his  legs  should  be  hand  rubbed  and 
afterwards  bandaged,  taking  care  that  the  bandages  are  not 
tight.  An  exhausted  horse  should  also  be  given  stimulants 
and  warm  gruel. 

The  value  of  grooming  is  dependent  upon  the  force  with 
which  the  brush  is  used  and  the  thoroughness  of  the  other 
work. 


Watering-  157 

Officers  and  noncommissioned  officers  should,  by  continu- 
ous personal  supervision,  see  that  the  groo,ming  is  properly 
done. 

No  horse  should  be  considered  in  order  until  he  is 
.thoroughly  clean;  his  mane  and  tail  brushed  out,  and  laid 
flat;  his  eyes  and  nostrils  wiped  or  washed,  and  hoofs  put 
in  order. 

The  pasterns  and  that  part  of  the  mane  where  the  crown- 
piece  of  the  bridle  rests  should  be  neatly  trimmed,  and  the 
mane  and  tail  plucked. 

At  each  "stables"  the  horses'  feet  and  shoeing  are  care- 
fully examined.  Horses  requiring  shoeing  are  reported  to 
the  platoon  sergeant,  who  notifies  the  stable  sergeant. 

Each  horse  should  be  inspected  by  an  officer  before  the 
man  who  has  groomed  him  is  permitted  to  leave. 

The  sheath  will  be  kept  clean  by  washing,  when  necessary, 
with  warm  water  and  castile  soap. 

A  good  discharge  from  the  cavalry  should  carry  with  it 
the  presumption  that  the  holder  is  a  good  horse  manager 
and  groom. 

WATERING 

Except  when  they  are  heated,  it  is  desirable  that  horses 
should  have  free  access  to  water  at  all  times.  As  this  is 
usually  impossible,  it  becomes  necessary  to  water  at  stated 
times. 

.  Horses  should,  if  possible,  be  watered  before  feeding,  or 
not  until  two  hours  after  feeding.  As  horses  rarely  drink 
in  the  early  morning,  the  watering  must  follow  the  feeding, 
but  after  the  proper  interval,  if  practicable. 

A  horse  requires  from  5  to  15  gallons  of  water  daily,  de- 
pending upon  the  temperature  and  upon  the  work  he  is  doing. 
Except  in  very  cold  weather,  horses  should  be  watered  at 
least  three  times  daily — in  the  morning,  before  the  noon 
feeding,  and  before  the  evening  feeding.  In  warm  weather, 
water  drawn  from  a  cold  well  or  spring  should  be  allowed 
to  stand  long  enough  for  the  chill  to  pass  off  before  the  horse 
is  allowed  to  drink. 

On  the  march  the  oftener  the  animals  are  watered  the 
better,  especially  as  it  is  not  usually  known  when  another 
watering  place  will  be  reached.  By  watering  from  buckets 
many  watering  places  not  otherwise  available  may  be  utilized. 

If  a  mounted  command  has  to  march  a  long  distance  with- 
out water,  so  that  it  will  be  necessary  to  encamp  en  route, 
the  animals  are  fed,  but  denied  water  until  just  before  start- 


158  Feeding 

ing,  when  they  are  permitted  to  drink  freely.  The  command 
marches  in  the  afternoon  and  does  not  encamp  until  it  has 
accomplished  at  least  half  of  the  distance,  it  moves  early  the 
next  morning  to  reach  water. 

Horses  must  be  watered  quietly  and  without  confusion ; 
the  manner  in  which  this  duty  is  performed  is  a  good  test 
of  the  discipline  of  a  mounted  com,mand. 

The  horses  are  led  or  ridden  at  a  walk  to  and  from  the 
watering  place.  No  crowding  will  be  allowed,  nor  will  any 
horse  be  hurried  or  have  his  head  jerked  up  from  the  water. 

The  horses  are  watered  under  the  immediate  direction  of 
the  senior  officer  or  noncommissioned  officer  present  at 
stables  or  at  other  time  of  watering;  an  officer  should  always 
be  present  when  the  horses  of  other  commands  are  liable  to 
be  met  at  the  watering  places. 

FEEDING 

Horses  should  be  fed  three  times  a  day — at  reveille,  in  the 
middle  of  the  day,  and  at  night.  This  rule  must  be  rigidly 
enforced  on  the  march,  the  noon  grain  feed  being  carried 
on  the  horse.  Ordinarily  one-third  of  the  grain  ration  is 
fed  each  time.  Hay,  as  a  rule,  is  not  fed  in  the  morning, 
but  about  one-third  of  the  ration  should  be  fed  at  noon, 
except  on  the  march,  and  the  remainder  at  night. 

The  use  of  bran  once  or  twice  a  week  is  important  for 
stabled  horses..  In  spring  or  early  summer  they  should  be 
grazed.  A  lump  of  rock  salt  should  be  kept  in  each  manger. 

Before  feeding  hay  it  should  be  thoroughly  shaken  out 
with  a  fork,  so  as  to  get  rid  of  dust  and  seed;  it  is  also 
advisable  to  moisten  the  hay  before  giving  it  to  the  horse. 
The  grain,  if  possible,  should  be  run  over  wire  screens  or 
allowed  to  fall  through  the  air  so  as  to  remove  dust. 

It  is  advisable  to  feed  at  least  a  portion  of  the  allowance 
of  hay  before  feeding  the  grain. 

Grain  should  never  be  fed  or  placed  in  the  manger  until 
it  is  certain  that  the  horses  are  thoroughly  cool. 

In  the  morning  the  horses  are  usually  fed  at  or  before 
reveille.  The  noon  feed  of  hay  is  usually  placed  in  the 
mangers  while  the  organization  is  at  drill,  but  the  grain  is 
not  fed  until  the  horses  are  thoroughly  cool.  The  evening 
feed  is  placed  in  the  mangers  after  the  stable  has  been 
thoroughly  policed  for  the  night. 


Exercising*  159 

All  horses  do  not  require  the  same  amount  of  forage;  the 
amount  given  each  horse  ,must  be  based,  therefore,  upon  his 
individual  requirements. 

When  forage  can  not  be  obtained,  grazing  should  be  re- 
quired at  every  spare  moment,  especially  early  in  the  morn- 
ing when  dew  is  on  the  grass. 

All  forage  received  by  an  organization  should  be  checked 
for  -weight  and  to  see  that  it  is  up  to  contract  specifications. 
All  officers  should  be  familiar  with  the  characteristics  of 
good  forage  and  the  manner  in  which  it  is  commercially 
graded  for  contract  specifications.  To  obtain  this  knowledge, 
officers  should  be  encouraged  to  visit  large  commercial 
stables. 

The  daily  allowance  of  oats,  barley,  or  corn  is  12  pounds 
for  each  horse;  that  of  hay,  14  pounds.  The  allowance  of 
straw  for  bedding  is  100  pounds  per  month  for  each  animal. 
'  Good  oats  weigh  about  40  pounds  to  the  bushel ;  barley, 
about  48  pounds;  corn,  about  56  pounds.  Pressed  hay  weighs 
about  11  pounds  per  cubic  foot. 

The  standard  bushel  in  the  United  States  contains  2,150.4 
cubic  inches.  A  cubic  yard  contains  21.69  bushels.  A  box 
16  by  16.8  by  8  inches  holds  1  bushel;  a  box  12  by  11.2  by 
8  inches  holds  half  a  bushel ;  a  box  8  by  8  by  8.4  inches  holds 
1  peck;  a  box  8  by  8  by  4.2  inches  holds  one-half  peck,  or 
4  quarts. 

EXERCISING 

To  keep  a  hors-e  in  good  condition  he  should  have  two 
hours'  exercise  daily.  This  exercise  should  be  under  the 
saddle,  or,  if  that  is  impracticable,  it  should  be  given  by 
leading  beside  another  horse. 

In  leading  care  must  be  taken  to  lead  as  much  on  the  right 
as  on  the  more  convenient  left  side.  This  can  be  automati- 
cally regulated  by  having  the  leading  done  on  the  right  side 
on  the  odd  numbered  days  of  the  month  and  on  the  left  on 
the  even  numbered  days. 

In  special  cases  it  may  be  given  on  the  longe,  but  this  must 
be  done  under  proper  supervision  or  injury  may  result. 

Turning  a  horse  loose  in  a  paddock  does  not  give  him 
proper  exercise,  and  if  the  paddock  is  a  large  one,  where  he 
can  get  up  speed,  it  results  in  giving  him  a  taste  for  freedom 
which  inspires  a  high-spirited  animal  to  try  to  get  rid  of  his 
rider  when  he  feels  like  having  a  run. 


160  Sick  Horses 

The  horse  should  associate  the  control  of  a  rider  with  the 
pleasure  of  all  exercise,  so  that  he  may  accept  it  naturally 
as  a  fixed  habit. 

It  is  objectionable  for  one  man  to  lead  more  than  -one 
extra  horse  for  exercise,  as.  the  gaits  must  then  be  more> 
restricted,  and  on  ordinary  roads  the  footing  for  some  of 
the  horses  will  be  poor. 

If  a  large  space  is  available  for  paddock  purposes  it  should 
be  divided  into  several  inclosures,  giving  space  for  a  part  of 
the  animals  to  move  about  quietly  in  each,  but  not  enough 
to  encourage  them  to  gallop. 

SICK  HORSES 

Horses  on  sick  report  are  under  the  immediate  charge  of 
the  stable  sergeant,  assisted  by  the  farrier. 

When  a  veterinarian  is  present  he  should  prescribe  the- 
treatment  to  be  given  to  sick  horses,  and  he  should  inspect 
all  sick  horses  at  least  once  daily. 

The  veterinarian  should  also  visit  each  organization  at  least 
once  a  day  at  one  of  the  stated  "stables,"  he  should  be  freely 
consulted  as  to  minor  ailments  and  as  to  the  means  of  keep- 
ing the  horses  in  fit  condition. 

In  the  absence  of  a  veterinarian  the  sick  horses  are  treated 
by  the  stable  sergeant  under  the  direction  of  the  captain. 

Serious  disease  is  best  avoided  by  immediate  and  constant 
attention  to  minor  ailmants,  galls,  etc. 

If  a  horse  sustains  an  injury,  neglects  his  food,  refuses 
water,  or  gives  any  evidence  of  sickness,  his  condition  should 
be  reported  at  once  to  the  stable  sergeant.  It  is  the  duty  of 
any  man  observing  such  conditions  to  make  the  necessary 
report. 

SHOEING 

Horses  will  be  shod  according  to  the  principles  outlined 
in  the  authorized  manual. 

All  officers  must  understand  the  principles  of  proper  shoe- 
ing* and  be  able  to  supervise  the  work  of  the  horseshoers. 

A  trooper  should  know  how  to  put  on  a  shoe  in  an  emer- 
gency, the  following  extracts  from  the  manual  are  therefore 
here  incorporated : 

The  Army  Horse shoer,  1912. — The  foot  should  be  prepared 
so  that  it  will  approximate  as  nearly  as  possible  to  a  state 
of  nature,  and  only  such  trimming  is  allowed  as  is  absolutely 
necessary  for  the  purpose  of  fitting  and  securing  the  shoe. 


Shoeing"  161 

The  knife  must  never  be  used  on  the  bars  or  on  the  frog. 
The  bars  strengthen  the  hoof  and  assist  in  its  expansion. 
Cutting,  therefore,  weakens  them  and  prevents  them  from 
performing  their  function. 

The  practice  of  using  the  knife  to  trim  the  bars  or  to  cut 
a  notch  at  the  junction  of  the  frog  and  bar  at  the  heel 
(called  opening  the  heels  in  civilian  shops)  always,  tends  to 
produce  contracted  feet. 

Never  use  a  knife  on  the  hoof  of  a  horse  that  has  been 
running  barefoot  nor  on  flat  feet. 

Ragged  parts  of  the  frog  may  be  cut  away  by  careful  use 
of  the  nippers. 

With  a  flat  foot  it  is  frequently  necessary  to  remove  a 
part  of  the  outer  edge  of  the  wall  in  order  that  the  nails 
may  be  driven  in  the  white  line  where  they  belong.  This  is 
the  only  case  where  it  is  permitted  to  rasp  the  outside  wall. 
The  outer  coating  of  the  wall  and  the  layers  -of  dead  horn 
on  the  sole  and  frog  serve  to  retain  the  moisture  in  the  hoof. 

The  hot  shoe  must  never  be  applied  to  the  horse's  foot 
under  any  circumstances. 

^  When  shoes  are  left  on  the  feet  for  too  great  a  length  of 
time  corns  and  other  ailments  result.  Ordinarily  a  shoe 
should  be  removed  once  a  month.  The  lightest  shoe  that  will 
last  for  this  time  is  the  best  shoe.  It  should  carefully  follow 
the  for.m  of  the  foot,  or  if  the  foot  is  broken  the  shoe  fol-  . 
lows  the  original  shape  of  the  foot.  Its  length  is  regulated 
by  the  bulb  of  the  frog. 

The  ground  surface  of  the  shoe  should  be  level  and  smooth, 
except  for  use  in  snow,  when  the  shoe  with  the  ground  sur- 
face concaved  prevents  balling.  That  portion  of  the  upper 
surface  which  presses  against  the  bearing  surface  of  the  foot 
must  be  level,  smooth,  and  accurately  shaped  to  support  it, 
and  when  the  upper  shoe  surface  is  wider  than  the  bearing 
surface  the  inner  edge  must  be  concaved  to  avoid  excessive 
sole  pressure.  This  is  one  of  the  most  important  requisites 
of  correct  horseshoeing.  Concussion  of  the  sole  against  the 
inner  edge  of  the  upper  shoe  surface  invariably  produces 
soreness. 

^  One  side  of  the  shank  of  a  horse  nail  is  flat.  The  other 
side  is  concave  and  also  has  a  bevel  near  the  point.  This 
bevel  as  it  enters  into  the  horn  forces  the  point  of  the  nail 
in ^ the  direction  of  the  other  side  (flat  side).  Therefore  in 
driving  a  nail  always  hold  it  with  the  flat  side  toward  outside 
edge  of  the  shoe. 


162  care  of  Saddlery 

Nails  should  come  out  at  a  height  of  not  more  than  1  inch 
from  the  bottom  of  the  hoof. 

In  garrison,  at  the  discretion  of  the  colonel  or  of  the  com- 
manding officer,  the  horses  may  be  left  unshod,  but  shoes 
will  be  kept  fitted  for  each  horse  ready  to  be  put  on. 

Inspection  of  shoeing — The  following  examination  should 
'be  made  while  the  horse,  is  standing  on  a  level  floor  with 
the  f  o-ot  on  the  ground : 

(a)  Are  the  axes  correct  when  viewed  from  the  front  and 
from  the  side? 

(&)  Does  the  shoe  follow  the  outer  line  of  the  wall  to  the 
last  nail  hole  and  from  there  extend  outward,  allowing  about 
one-eighth  of  an  inch  at  the  heel  for  expansion?  Has  the 
rule  against  rasping. the  hoof  to  fit  the  shoe  been  violated? 

(c)  Is  the  toe  clip  in  the  center  properly  (made  and  pro- 
perly seated? 

(d)  Are  the  nails  driven  at  the  proper  height  and  proper 
distance  apart?     Have  .any  old  stubs  been  left  in  the  wall? 

(e)  Are  the  clutches  well  turned  and  set  in,  of  the  proper 
size,  and  have  they  been  smoothed  off  but  not  rasped  suffici- 
ently to  weaken  them? 

The  foot  should  then  be  raised  and  the  examination  con- 
tinued. 

(f)  Is  the   shoe  of  the   proper  size  and   weight;  the  last 
nail  hole  back  of  the  bend  of  the  quarter? 

(g)  Has  enough  horn  been  removed;  has  too  much  been 
removed;  is  the  foot  level? 

(h)  Does  the  shoe  rest  evenly  on  the  wall,  covering  the 
buttresses  and  Showing  no  air  space  at  any  point? 

(i)  Is  the  shoe  properly  concaved  so  as  to  avoid  pressure 
on  the  sole? 

(/)     Has  the  knife  been  used  on  the  bars,  sole,  or  frog? 

(&)  Are  the  nails  well  seated  and  of  trie  proper  size? 

(/)  Are  the  heels  of  the  shoe  correct  in  width  and  thick- 
ness and  are  they  properly  rounded  without  sharp  edges  or 
points?  Is  their  length  even  with  the  bulb  of  the  frog? 

CARE  OF  SADDLERY. 

The  saddlery  and  equipment  must  always  be  cleaned  after 
use.  This  duty,  like  the  care  of  the  horse,  is  to  be  regarded 
as  part  of  the  mounted  duty  itself;  thus  a  drill  is  not  over 


Pitting-  the  Saddle  163 

until  horse,  saddlery,  arms,  and  equipments  have  been  put 
again  in  condition.  According  to  need  the  leather  is  simply 
wiped  off  with  a  damp  sponge  or  well  soaped  and  cleaned. 
In  no  case  must  it  be  soaked  with  water. 

If  the  soap  used  does  not  contain  a  sufficient  amount  of 
free  oil  the  leather  must  be  oiled  .to  keep  it  pliable.  A  mix- 
ture of  one-half  neat's-foot  oil  and  one-half  mutton  tallow, 
well  rubbed  in,  keeps  leather  in  good  condition.  Special  care 
is  taken  to  keep  the  underside  of  the  skirts  of  the  saddle  and 
the  parts  which  do  not  coime  in  contact  with  the  clothing 
well  oiled.  The  seat  and  outside  of  the  skirts  will  rarely 
require  oil. 

Metal  parts  are  kept  clean  and  free  from  rust;  they  may 
require  oiling  if  not  regularly  used. 

The  saddle  blanket  must  be  kept  clean  and  soft  and  free 
from  wrinkles.  After  use  it  must  be  dried  and  then  well 
shaken  (unfolded).  It  must  never  be  folded  wet  and  left 
thus  with  the  saddle.  Provision  i  will  be  made  in  the  saddle 
room  or  stables  for  hanging  it  up  to  dry. 

In  the  field  its  use  as  bedding  for  the  men  will  not  be 
allowed  and  special  care  will  then  be  exercised  to  keep  it 
free  from  dirt. 

When  necessary  the  blanket  should  be  thoroughly  cleansed 
by  repeated  immersions  in  tepid  soapsuds  and  hung  over  a 
pole  or  line  to  dry  without  wringing  or  pressing  it. 

FITTING  THE  SADDLE. 

There  are  six  axioms  in  saddle  fitting : 

(a)  The  withers  must  not  be  pinched  nor  pressed  upon. 

(b)  The   central  line   of   the   back  must   have   no  pressure 
put  upon  it. 

(c)  The   shoulder  blades   must   have   full  and  unhampered 
movement. 

(d)  The  loins  must  not  carry  weight. 

(<?)  The  weight  must  be  put  upon  the  ribs  through  the 
medium  of  the  muscles  covering  them. 

(/)  The  weight  must  be  evenly  distributed  over  a  surface 
which  extends  from  the  play  of  the  shoulders  to  the  last 
true  rib. 

The  regulation  saddle  adjusts  itself  automatically  to  the 
width  of  the  horse's  back.  This  automatic  adjustment  is 
brought  about  by  applying  all  the  weight  that  is  to  come 
upon  the  side  bars,  through  their  center  of  rotation,  thus 


164  Pitting-  the  Saddle 

leaving  the  side  bar  of  the  loaded  saddle  free  to  adapt  itself 
to  the  varying  width  of  the  'back. 

In  order  to  preserve  this  freedom,  no  attachments  of  any 
kind  should  be  placed  on  the  side  bar,  other  than  as  issued, 
and  no  weight  should  be  permitted  to  rest  on  the  side  bars 
other  than  that  transmitted  to  them  through  the  hinges.  The 
cantle  roll  support  and  straps  have  been  devised  especially 
to  raise  the  roll  and  keep  all  weight  off  the  side  bars. 

While  the  side  bars  adapt  themselves  automatically  to  the 
slope  of  the  horse's  back  it  is  necessary  to  ascertain  whether 
they  bear  evenly  on  the  back  and  whether  the  arch  and  seat 
are  clear  of  the  spine. 

To  determine  this  the  saddle  is  placed  first  on  the  naked 
back,  the  front  of  the  side  bar  resting  in  the  pit  of  the 
shoulder  (the  hollow  back  of  the  shoulder  blade).  If  there 
is  then  sufficient  clearance  of  the  withers  and  backbone  no 
trouble  will  be  encountered  when  the  saddle  is  put  on  with 
a  blanket. 

A  new  blanket  is  then  folded  and  placed  in  proper  position 
on  the  back  and  the  saddle  placed  on  the  blanket  so  that  the 
front  end  of  the  side  bar  approaches  closely  the  shoulder 
blade  without  pressing  upon  it.  The  blanket  is  pushed  well 
up  into  the  pommel  arch.  The  saddle  is  now  girthed  and  a 
man  placed  in  the  saddle. 

It  must  be  kept  in  mind  that  the  blanket  reduces  the  width 
of  the  pommel  arch  and  narrows  the  saddle  across  the  top 
of  the  side  bars. 

The  fit  of  the  saddle  can  never  be  determined  without  see- 
ing a  man  in  it;  parts  may  appear  out  of  harm's  way,  when 
no  weight  is  in  the  saddle,  which  are  brought  dangerously 
close  under  the  pressure  of  a  man's  weight. 

The  first  thing  to  ascertain  is  the  freedom  from  pressure 
on  the  withers;  the  hand  must  pass  readily  between  the 
blanket  and  the  withers,  over  the  top  as  well  as  along  the 
side. 

In  applying  this  test  the  man  in  the  saddle  should  lean 
forward  and  the  examiner  must  not  be  satisfied  with  any- 
thing less  than  the  introduction  of  the  entire  hand. 

The  next  thing  is  to  ascertain  freedom  from  pressure  on 
the  shoulder  blade.  This  is  done  by  passing  the  hand  under- 
neath the  blanket  from  the  front  until  the  play  of  the  shoulder 
blade  can  be  felt.  The  foreleg  is  raised  and  advanced  to  its 
full  extent  to  the  front  by  an  assistant  while  the  hand  is  in 
this  position.  If  this  can  be  done,  while  the  man  in  the  saddle 
is  leaning  forward,  without  pinching  the  fingers  between  the 


Fitting  the  Saddle  165 

side  bars  and  the  shoulder  blade  the  fit  in  this  respect  is 
satisfactory.  The  test  should  be  made  on  both  shoulders. 

If  the  fingers  are  pinched  the  shoulder  blades  will  be 
pinched  and  the  saddle  must  be  raised  by  folding  the  saddle 
blanket  up  on  each  side,  so  as  to  place  extra  thickness  under 
the  bars  or  by  placing  extra  felt  on  the  side  bars. 

The  rear  ends  of  the  bars  are  next  tested  for  loin  pressure 
with  the  man  in  the  saddle  leaning  back.  The  flat  of  the 
hand  should  find  ready  admission  between  the  ends  of  the 
bars  and  the  loins. 

Assuming  that  the  above  defects  have  been  remedied  the 
saddle  should  be  ridden  in  for  half  an  hour  or  more  to 
ascertain  whether  the  pressure  of  the  side  bars  is  evenly 
distributed. 

On  completion  of  the  ride  the  saddle  is  carefully  ungirthed 
and  lifted  from  the  blanket  without  disturbing  it  in  any  way. 
The  blanket  will  be  found  to  bear  the  imprint  of  the  side  bars 
and  an  examination  of  this  depression  will  show  at  a  glance 
whether  the  bars  press  evenly  from  top  to  bottom  and  from 
front  to  rear. 

The  examination  must  be  quickly  made  as  the  blanket  soon 
loses  the  impression  of  the  side  bars. 

Any  irregularity  in  the  fit  of  the  side  bars  may  be  remedied 
by  the  introduction  of  pieces  of  felt  to  fill  up  the  spaces 
between  the  side  bars  and  the  blanket.  With  very  little  prac- 
tice these  pieces  of  felt  may  be  cut  to  the  required  shape  and 
thickness  with  a  very  sharp  knife.  Some  edges  will  need  to 
be  as  thin  as  a  knife  edge;  other  parts  may  require  the  ad- 
dition of  more  than  one  thickness. 

After  determining  where  these  pieces  of  felt  are  to  rest  on 
the  wooden  side  bars  they  are  placed  in  the  upper  and  inner 
side  of  the  felt  coverings  of  these  bars  and  fastened  in  the 
proper  place  with  a  few  stitches  of  thread. 

The  most  radical  alterations  in  the  fit  of  the  side  bar  can 
be  effected  with  these  strips ;  the  method  is  simple  and  quick, 
and  does  not  require  a  trained  workman. 

It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  no  matter  how  much  care 
may  be  taken  in  fitting  a  saddle,  such  "fitting  is  only  adapted 
to  the  horse  in  the  condition  in  which  he  is  at  the  time. 

On  active  service  the  saddles  require  daily  attention.  They 
should  be  inspected  as  regularly  as  are  the  feet.  Every  weak 
point  in  the  fit  of  the  saddle  in  the  squadron  should  t>e  known 
and  the  remedy  arranged  for.  In  no  other  way  is  it  possible 
to  bring  horses  through  severe  work  with  sound  backs. 


166 


The    Horse 


Points  of  the 


"  tfcarf. 

17, 

Fetlock  or  pastern 

30, 

The  root  of  the 

( 

joint. 

dock  or  tail. 

I, 

2, 

Muzzle. 
Nostril. 

18, 
19, 

Coronet. 
Hoof  or  foot. 

Hind  quarter. 

Forehead. 

20, 

Heel. 

31. 

The     hip     joint, 

4, 

Jaw; 

round.or  whirl- 

5, 

Poll. 

XV,     T, 

Rod\j  or  middle  piece. 

32, 

bone. 
The  stifle  joint. 

4\  €CK. 

33,33,  Lower  thigh  or 

21, 

Withers. 

7\ 

6,  Crest. 
Throttle  or  wind- 

22, 
23, 

Back. 
23,  Ribs  (forming 

34, 
86, 

The  quarters. 
The  hock. 

pipe. 

together    the 

36, 

The  point  of  the 

Fore  quarter. 
&,  8.  Shoulder  blude. 

21, 

barrelorchest). 
24,  The  circumfer- 
ence    of     the 

37r 

38, 

hock. 
The  curb  place. 
The  cannon  bone. 

$ 

Point  of  shoulder. 

chest    at    this 

39, 

The  back  sinew. 

10! 

Bosom  or  breast. 

point,      called 

40, 

Pastern  or  fetlock 

u, 

12, 

11.  True  arm. 
Elbow. 

25, 

the  girth. 
The  loins. 

41, 

joint. 
Coronet. 

13 

Forearm  (arm).     • 

26, 

The  croup. 

42, 

Hoof  or  foot. 

11, 

Knee. 

27, 

The  hip. 

43, 

Heel. 

15, 

Cannon  boue. 

28, 

The  flank. 

44, 

Spavin  place. 

16, 

Back  sinew. 

29, 

Sbeatu. 

Notes  on  Hippology  167 

NOTES  ON  HIPPOLOGY 

CONFORMATION 

Forehead — Should  be  broad  and  flat,  Viot  bulgy. 

Eyes — Full,  clear  and  prominent,  mild,  and  no  white 
should  show. 

Muzzle — Not  too  large,  coarseness  denotes  bad  breath- 
ing. 

Nostrils — Large  and   open. 

Face — Straight. 

Lower  Jaw — Ample  width  between  sides  for  the  de- 
velopment and  play  of  larynx.  Also  to  allow  head  to  flex 
easily  and  bend  on  the  neck. 

Parotid  and"  Sub-maxillary  Regions — Should  be  free 
from  large  glands  and  loose  skin  at  lower  part  of  throat. 

Ears — Medium  size,  set  well  on  head,  erect  and  far 
apart. 

Neck — Moderate  length;  clean  but  not  too  narrow  in 
rear  of  throat;  short  and  thick  prevents  pliability;  long  and 
thin  exaggerates  it.  Upper  border  should  be  convex  rather 
than  concave  (ewe  neck).  Jugular  channel  or  furrow  should 
be  free  from  enlargements.  Windpipe  should  have  appear- 
ance of  being  free  from  throat. 

Shoulder— Point  should  be  well  developed.  The  should- 
er should  slope  well  for  cavalry;  fairly  straight  for  artillery 
or  draft  horses.  The  sloping  shoulder  signifies  speed,  the 
straight  shows  hauling  power.  The  front  line  should  be 
clearly  marked  with  no  excess  (muscular  development  or  ir- 
regular surfaces. 

Elbow — The  point  should  be  straight,  parallel  to  the 
longitudinal  axis  of  the  horse.  If  it  turns  out  excessively 
the  horse  will  be  "pigeon-toed,"  if  in,  the  toes  will  point  out 
("slew  footed"). 

Forearm — Long  and  muscular. 

Knee — Broad,  larger  than  forearm  or  cannon  bone;  flat 
in  front,  tapering  back  to  narrow  edge.  Should  be  straight; 
bent  back  is  "calf  kneed";  bent  forward  is  "knee  sprung." 


168  Notes  on  Hippology 

Cannon  Bone — Should  be  uniform  size,  much  shorter 
than  the  forearm.  If  smaller  just  below  the  knee  than  else- 
where ("tied  in")  weakness  is  indicated.  - 

Fetlock  Joint — Good  size   and  free   from  enlargements. 

Pasterns — Moderate  length,  should  form  an  angle  with 
the  floor  or  ground  of  about  45  to  50  degrees. 

Foot — Moderate  size;  flat  foot  or  narrow  heel  both  bad. 
Moderate  in  height  and  breadth. 

Withers — Moderate  in  height  and  breadth.  If  high  and 
thin  saddle  will  bruise  top  of  withers  causing  a  fistula.  If 
too  flat  low,  and  broad  saddle  will  slip  forward. 

Breast  and  Chest — Moderate  width  but  deep.  Narrow- 
ness is  sure  sign  of  weakness  but  extreme  breadth  is  good 
only  for  draft  animals. 

Girth — Should  be  large  to  indicate  lung  capacity. 
Back  Ribs — Should  be  long  to  indicate   stamina. 

Barrel — Should  be  fairly  even  in  diameter.  If  too 
broad,  girth  will  slip  forward  and  chafe  behind  elbow;  if 
too  narrow  girth  will  slip  back. 

Back — Should  be  short  and  well  muscled.  Last  rib 
should  be  close  to  hip  for  carrying  power.  Upper  lines  should 
bend  slightly  down  behind  withers  and  then  rise  gently  to 
loins. 

Loins — Should  be  heavily  muscled.  The  curve  should 
be  slightly  arched  for  strength  without  rigidity.  " Sway-back" 
and  "Roach-back"  are  both  bad. 

Hips — Broad,  smooth  and  muscular. 

Croup — Well  rounded  and  slope  gently  downward. 
Horizontal  or  drooping  croup  is  bad.  If  the  croup  droops 
and  becomes  narrow  below  tail  ("goose-rump")  weakness  is 
indicated. 

Dock — Large  and  muscular.  Tail  firm  and  carried  well 
away  from  rump. 

Quarters — Thighs,  buttocks  and  gaskin  should  be  broad 
and  well  muzzled.  Muscles  of  quarters  should  come  close 
together.  If  separated  poor  constitution  is  indicated. 


Defects  and  Blemishes  169 

Hock — Good  size,  clean  and  flat.  Point  good  and  clean 
and  clear  of  joint.  Hocks  should  be  well  apart.  If  close 
together  feet  are  apart  and  toes  too  far  out  "Cow-Hock." 
If  too  far  apart  horse  will  be  "Bow-legged."  If  hocks  stand 
in,  stifles  will  stand  out  and  vice-versa.  "Sickle  Hock"  is 
combination  of  crooked  hock,  short  cannon  bone  and  a  too 
sloping  pastern. 

Cannon  Bone — Short  back  tendon  not  "tied  in."  Line  from 
point  of  hock  to  fetlock  should  be  straight.  If  anything  it 
should  be  slightly  concave.  This  is  an  important  point  as  a 
convex  line  signifies  a  badly  shaped  hock  over  which  the 
back  sinew  has  to  pass  and  can  easily  develop  on  sudden  or 
hard  strain  into  a  curb. 

Fetlock — Hind  fetlocks  should  correspond  to  fore  but 
pasterns  are  generally  more  upright  in  hind  feet.  If  pasterns 
are  bent  forward,  "Cocked-ankle." 

DEFECTS  AND  BLEMISHES. 
Some  Diseases  of  the  Extremities: 

Bone  Spavin — Lower  and  inner  part  of  hock  joint. 
Caused  by  bruise  or  sprain. 

Splints — Usually  on  inner  side  and  upper  part  of  front 
cannon.  Occasionally  on  outer  side  of  upper  third  of  hind 
cannon. 

Sidebones — Ossification  of  lateral  cartilage  on  sides  of 
foot  just  above  coronet. 

Ring  Bone — Between  coronet  and  fetlock  joint. 
Bog  Spavin — Front  part  of  hock  joint. 

Thorough  Pin — Sac  filled  with  synovial  fluid  in  upper 
and  back  part  of  hock  joint.. 

Wind  Puffs  (Wind  Galls) — Bursal  enlargements  on 
sides  of  tendons  just  above  fetlock  joints. 

Navicular  Disease — Injury  to  navicular  bone,  just  be- 
hind coffin  bone. 

Other  distended  synovial  sacs  or  pouches  (bursal  enlarge- 
ments) may  be  found  on  different  parts  of  legs  but  have  no 
special  name. 


170  Defects  and  Blemishes 

Diseases  of  Muscles,  Tendons,  Ligaments  and  Skin: 
Poll  Evil — In  region  of  Poll — an  abscess  or  fistula. 
Fistulous  Withers — Deep  seated  abscess  of  the  withers. 

Sweeney — Atrophy  or  wasting  of  muscles  usually  in 
shoulder  or  hip. 

Broken  Knees — Front  part  of  knees  damaged,  whether 
serious  or  not. 

Capped  Elbow — Point  of  elbow  enlarged. 
Capped  Hock — Point  of  hock  enlarged. 
Sprung  Knees — Knees  bent  forward. 

Bowed  Tendons — Enlarged  sheath  of  flexor  tendon 
below  knee  or  hock. 

Breakdown — Sprain  of  suspensary  ligaments. 

Contracted  Heels — Caused  by  atrophy  of  frog,  the  re- 
sult of  leaving  shoes  on  too  long  without  resetting,  or  by 
destruction  of  frog  by  thrush. 

Toe  Cracks — A  crack  in  the  front  part  of  the  hoof  ex- 
tending from  the  toe  upward. 

Seedy  Toe — Unhealthy  condition  of  toe  of  hoof. 

Curb — Tnflamation  of  the  tendon  which  passes  over  the 
back  of  the  true-hock  joint.  This  place  is  called  the  "curb 
place,"  and  when  prominent  renders  the  animal  liable  to 
curb. 

Diseases,  their  Causes  and  Manifestations: 

Flatulent  or  Wind  Colic — Indigestion,  formation  of 
gases  in  the  intestines  causing  distension,  a  very  serious  ail- 
ment. 

Spasmodic  Colic — Acute  indigestion  causing  spasmodic 
contraction  of  intestines.  It  is  very  serious  if  prompt  relief 
can  not  be  given. 

Tetanus  or  Lockjaw— Caused  by  infection  of  wound  in 
the  foot  with  the  tetanus  germ. 

False  Tetanus — A  contraction  of  the  muscles  all  over 
the  animal  from  too  sudden  cooling  or  watering  when  greatly 
fatigued  or  overheated.  The  symptoms  appear  very  quickly 
and  resemble  those  of  lockjaw  or  tetanus. 


Defects  and  Blemishes  171 

Botts — An  accmmulation  of  eggs  of  the  gadfly,  causing 
stoppage  of  the  intestines. 

Founder  or  Lamintis— Inflammation  of  the  sensitive 
laminae  due  to  imperfect  circulation.  It  is  caused  by  over- 
feeding, or  feeding  grain  or  watering  before  the  animal  is 
sufficiently  cooled  and  rested. 

Glanders — A  deadly,  incurable  and  highly  contagious 
and  infectious  disease  of  the  respiratory  organs  and  passages 
and  of  the  glands  about  the  head. 

Farcy — The  same  as  glanders  except  that  it  is  called 
farcy  when  it  appears  in  the  lymphatic  glands  and  ducts. 

Distemper  or  Cold — Caused  by  lowering  the  animal's 
power  to  resist  disease  by  chilling,  ^ck  of  ventilation  or  con- 
tagion. 

Scratches  or  Grease — A  chapped  and  infected  condition 
of  the  parts  in  rear  of  the  pastern. 

Miscellaneous : 

The  Pulse — Normal  about  40  pulsations  per  minute. 
Can  best  be  taken  at  sub-maxillary  artery  (at  jaw).  The 
horse  should  be  perfectly  quiet  when  his  pulse  is  taken.  If 
the  pulse  is  at  first  full  and  throbbing,  then  small  and  weak, 
it  is  a  sure  sign  of  fever.  A  very  slow  pulse  indicates  disease 
or  injury  of  the  brain  or  spinal  cord. 

Respiration — Normal,  13  to  15  -per  minute.  Difficult  or 
rapid  breathing  is  symptom  of  disease  of  respiratory  organs, 
though  sometimes  of  flatulent  colic.  Abdominal  breathing 
(ribs  fixed),  is  symptom  of  pleurisy  or  hydro-thorax  (water 
in  chest).  Irregular  breathing  wherein  there  is  a  want  of 
harmony  between  inspiratory  movements  is  Broken  Wind  or 
Heaves.  Inspiratory  movement,  quick  and  jerky,  expiratory 
movement  slow  with  doubled  action,  particularly  of  abdominal 
muscles  is  also  symptom  of  heaves.  During  course  of  this 
disease,  breathing  often  becomes  spasmodic  of  convulsive^ 

Visible  mucous  membranes,  in  color  and  condition  are  im- 
portant guides  to  physical  condition. 

A  horse  breathes  about  250  cubic  inches  of  air  with  each 
inspiration.  This  equals  about  2  cubic  feet  per  ,minute. 

Temperature— Normal  is  99  to  101,  although  slightly 
higher  in  younger  animals. 


CHAPTER  VIL 

NOTES  ON  TOPOGRAPHY 

Simple  Military  Sketching — It  is  essential  that  every 
officer  know  and  be  able  to  instruct  in  the  art  of  making 
simple  military  sketches.  Sketching  consists  of  representing 
on  suitable  material  a  portion  of  the  earth's  surface  upon  a 
reduced  scale.  The  following  articles  are  necessary  for 
sketching : 

A  sketching  board,  improvised  or  otherwise,  so  arranged 
that  it  may  be  used  for  reading  slopes. 

A  scale  for  measuring  distances. 

A  suitable  compass,  paper  and  pencils. 

Sketching  Board — There  are  regular  sketching  boards 
with  tripods  attached  for  dismounted  work  and  with  wrist 
loops  for  mounted  work.  Some  of  them  have  roller  attach- 
ments for  the  paper,  and  are  provided  with  compasses  and 
metallic  scales  and  other  refinements.  Such  sketching  boards, 
however,  are  not  necessary  to  produce  excellent  results.  A 
suitable  sketching  board  may  be  improvised  by  taking  a  piece 
of  cardboard  or  light  wood,  of  convenient  dimensions,  about 
12"  by  12"  and  with  straight  edges.  The  material  should  be 
such  as  will  penmit  the  use  of  thumb  tacks  for  holding  the 
paper. 

For  reading  slopes  a  plumb  bob  should  be  suspended  from 
a  point  midway  along  one  edge.  By  means  of  a  protractor, 
the  degrees  should  be  marked  all  around  the  other  three 
edges  of  the  board.  See  page  173. 

Scales — Scales  are  represented  in  the  following  different 
ways.  Graphically,  by  drawing  a  line  and  dividing  it  into 
certain  units  which  correspond  to  certain  distances ;  by  a 
simple  equation  that  so  many  map  inches  equals  so  many 
miles;  by  means  of  what  is  known  as  a  representative  frac- 
tion, the  numerator  of  which  represents  a  certain  distance 
on  the  map,  and  the  denominator  the  corresponding  distance 
on  the  ground.  To  make  a  graphic  scale,  one  must  know  the 
proportion  which  the  map  bears  to  the  surface  of  the  ground 
represented.  A  graphical  scale  is  the  kind  of  scale  to  be 
used  in  making  and  reading  maps. 

172 


IVl'NOZItiOH 


JO    NIVId 
3/\08j/ 


174  Notes  on  Topography 

Making  Scales — Let  us  assume  that  it  is  necessary  to 
make  a  scale  of  say  one  inch  to  the  mile,  to  read  yards.  First, 
it  might  be  said  that  a  scale,  for  convenience  of  use,  should 
be  approximately  six  inches  in  length.  It  may  be  longer  or 
shorter.  It  is  necessary  to  determine  the  exact  length  which 
the  scale  should  be. 

We  have  the  following  simple  methods :  Since  one  inch 
on  the  itnap  represents  1,760  yds.  (the  number  of  yards  in  a 
mile),  6  inches  would  equal  6  x  1,760,  or  10,560  yds.  This 
number  of  yards  is  not  a  convenient  length  to  subdivide;  we 
will  take  the  length  of  the  scale  as  that  which  will  represent 
10,000  yds.  In  order  to  find  the  length  of  the  desired  scale, 
we  will  resort  to  the  following  simple  proportion:  10,560  is 
to  10,000  as  6  is  to  X  (X=  the  length  of  the  desired  scale), 
from  which  X  will  be  found  to  equal  approximately  5.6 
inches. 

Assume  that  it  is  necessary  to  make  a  scale  for  a  map  3 
inches  to  the  mile.  Method :  3  inches  represents  1,760  yds., 
6  inches  represents  3,520  yds.,  and  3,520  yds.  not  being  a 
convenient  distance  for  the  scale  to  represent,  we  will  take 
3,500  yds.  To  ascertain  the  length  of  the  scale  required  to 
represent  3,500  yds.,  we  will  resort  to  the  following  propor- 
tion :  3,520  is  to  3,500  as  6  is  to  X,  from  which  X  is  found 
to  be  about  5.9  inches  in  length, 

To  make  a  6  inch  scale.  Method:  6  inches  represents  1,760 
yds.  1,760  not  being  a  convenient  distance  for  the  scale  to 
represent,  we  take  2,000  yds.  Use  the  following  proportion: 
1,760  is  to  2,000  as  6  is  to  X,  giving  about  6.82  inches  as  the 
length  of  the  scale. 

Summary — The  scale  of  one  inch  to  the  mile  5.6  inches 
in  length  (representing  10,000  yds.)  ;  for  the  scale  of  3  inches 
to  the  mile,  5.9  inches  in  length  (representing  3,500  yds.)  ;  for 
the  scale  of  6  inches  to  the  mile,  we  have  6.82  inches  (repre- 
senting 2,000  yds),  It  is  now  necessary  to  divide  these  scales 
into  parts  representing  lesser  distances  for  convenience  in 
measuring. 

.Method — Draw  a  line  the  desired  length  according  to 
the  scale  and  distance  to  be  represented,  and  from  one  end 
of  this  line,  at  a  convenient  acute  angle,  draw  an  auxilliary 
line,  and  divide  it  into  an  even  number  of  inches,  y2  inches 
or  y^  inches,  the  number  of  divisions  to  correspond  to  the 
number  of  parts  into  which  it  is  necessary  to  divide  the  scale. 
Draw  a  straight  line  through  the  separated  ends  of  the  scale, 
and  the  auxiliary  line;  and  parallel  to  this  new  .line  draw 


Notes  on  Topography  175 

other  lines  through  the  division  points  on  the  auxilliary  line. 
These  lines  will  cut  the  scale  into  the .  desired  number  of 
equal  parts.  Each  of  the  parts  of  the  scale  should  then  be 
marked  with  the  number  of  yards  it  represents.  (See 
Diagram.)  The  scale  thus  drawn  will  be  transferred  to  a 
thin  strip  of  paper  and  pasted  on  a  strip  of  wood  with  a 
straight  edge,  of  convenient  length.  For  measuring  very 
short  distances,  one  of  the  end  divisions  of  the  scale  should 
be  subdivided  to  represent  smaller  distances. 

To  Find  the  Representative  Fraction  of  a  Map  Whose 
Scale  is  Known: 

Take  for  .example  a  map  whose  scale  is  one  inch  to  the 
mile.  We  have  one  inch  representing  1,760  yards  or 
(1,760  x  36)  inches,  or  63,360  inches,  giving  a  representative 
fraction  of  1/63,360. 

Example  2 — For  a  map  whose  scale  is  3  inches  to  the 
mile,  we  have  3  inches  equals  1,760  yds.,  or  (1,760  x  36) 
inches,  or  63,360  inches,  giving  the  following  fraction  3/63,360, 
which  reduces  to  1/21,120,  which  is  the  representative  fraction 
desired. 

Example  3 — For  a  map  whose  scale  is  6  inches  to  the 
mile.  6  inches  representing  1,760  yards  or  (1,760  x  36)  inches, 
or  63,360  inches,  giving  the  following  fraction  6/63,360  which 
reduces  to  1/10,560,  the  representative  fraction  desired. 

Determining  Scales   from   Representative   Fraction: 

For  maps  whose  scales  do  not  show  the  exact  number  of 
inches  representing  an  exact  number  of  miles :  to  determine 
the  scale  from  the  representative  fraction  given.  Take  for 
instance,  a  map  whose  representative  fraction  is  1/62,500. 
We  have  one  inch  representing  62,500  inches,  or  one  inch 
represents  ff|||  miles  which  equals  .98  miles.  (Since  there 
are  63,360  inches  in  one  mile),  a  little  less  than  one 
mile  to  an  inch.  Simply  divide  the  denominator  by  the  num- 
ber of  inches  in  a  mile,  take  the  numerator  as  one  inch  and 
the  result  will  give  the  number  of  miles  to  an  inch.  The 
number  of  yards  represented  by  an  inch  in  such  cases  would 
be  determined  by  dividing  the  denominator  of  the  representa- 
tive fraction  by  the  number  of  inches  in  a  yard.  In  this  case 
it  would  be  62,500  divided  by  36  or  1,736-1/9  yards,  or  one 
inch  equals  1,736-1/9  yds.  In  such  cases  it  would  be  advisable 
to  construct  a  new  scale  with  the  ^  methods  given  above,  ac- 
cording to  the  ratio  or  representative  fraction  of  the  map. 


176  Measuring1  "by  Paces 

MEASURING  BY  PACES 

The  usual  method  of  .measuring  distances  in  making  mili- 
tary sketches  is  by  pacing.  A  convenient  and  simple  method 
is  to  ascertain  the  number  of  paces  it  takes  to  cover  a  certain 
distance,  say  100  yds.,  and  on  the  scale  at  each  100  yd.  division 
point,  mark  the  number  of  paces  that  it  takes  to  cover  each 
of  the  distances  represented. 

Another  method  is  to  make  the  scale  to  read  paces  instead 
of  yards.  In  such  a  case  the  length  of  the  pace  should  be 
ascertained,  and  substituted  for  that  of  the  yard  in  the  fore- 
going mehods  of  making  scales;  for  instance,  whenever  the 
number  of  yards  in  a  mile  is  used,  substitute  for  it  the  num- 
ber of  paces  in  a  mile  and  proceed  in  the  same  manner  as  in 
making  the  scale  by  yards. 

SCALES  OF  MAP  DISTANCES 

These  are  also  known  as  scales  of  horizontal  equivalents, 
and  are  used  for  ascertaining  elevations,  and  for  the  proper 
spacing  of  contour  lines  on  slopes.  The  following  data  should 
always  be  kept  in  mind  by  all  military  persons  who  may  have 
to  make  sketches,  read  maps,  etc. 

In  moving  up  or  down  a  slope  one  gains  'distance  in  two 
ways,  horizontally  and  vertically.  The  vertical  (V)  distance 
divided  by  the  horizontal  (H)  measures  the  slope,  since  it 
equals  the  tangent  of  the  angle  of  the  slope.  (Tangent  of 
slope  in  degrees=-^r-  and  therefore  V=H  x  tangent  of  slope 
in  degrees.)  To  express  this  we  say  that  the  vertical  rise 
or  descent  equals  the  horizontal  or  map  distance  multiplied 
by  the  tangent  of  the  angle  of  slope.  In  going  forward  a 
horizontal  distance  of  57.3  ft.  up  an  incline  of  one  degree, 
one  will  rise  1  ft.  This  should  be  carefully  remembered.  In 
going  forward  573  ft.  one  will  rise  10  ft.  on  a  one  degree 
slope.  See  diagram  page  177. 

The  steeper  the  slope,  the  more  sudden  the  rise  will  JDC.  In 
going  up  a  slope  of  2  degrees  the  elevation  will  be  twice  that 
for  1  degree,  and  for  3  degrees,  three  times  that  for  1  degree, 
etc.  As  it  is  necessary  to  go  forward  573  ft.  on  one  degree 
slope  to  rise  10  ft.,  it  "will  only  be  necessary  to  go  forward 
one-half  that  distance,  286^  ft.  to  rise  the  same  amount,  and 
on  a  three  degree  slope,  one-third  of  573  ft.  to  rise  10  ft.,  and 
so  on. 


Method  of  dividing  the  scale  into  shorter  units  of  measure 

5. 6, 5. 9  or  6.8Z  etc __ 


This  line  is  drawn  according  to  the  length  of  scale  desired-  it  i*  then  to  be  divided 


Assume  that  the 

line  A  B  represents  3500s 

yards  and  is5.9"in  length. 

Draw  the  line  A*  C  at  any  con- 

venient  angle  to. A  B,and  make  it 

7  inches  in  length.        It  Will  be  necess^ 

ary  to  divide  AB  into  7  equal  parts,  eachN 

to  represent  500  yards. 

Mark  off  on  A  C  the  inch  divisions  and 
draw  BC         Then  parallel  to  B  C  draw  lines 
through  the  inch  marks  on  A.C.      These  lines  will 
divide  A  B  into  7  equal  parts. 

The  same  principle  is  applied  in  making  the  other  scales. 
To  get  a  smaller  unit  of  measure  take  the  left  sub- 
division of    A  B  (Ax)    and   in  the  same  manner  di- 
vide  it  into   10  (or  other  convenient  number)  parts, 
each   to   represent  50  yards. 


Illustration  of  principle  of  making  a  scale 
of  map  distances  (horizontal  equivalents) 

Line  AB  Represents  a  contour  line  10ft.  above  contour 
line  C  D.  Lines  CB,  CG,  CF,  and  CE  indicate  slopesof  dif- 
ferent degrees.  From  CE;,  CF(  CG-  and  CD  it  can  be 'seen 
that  the  horizontal  distances  necessary  to  attain  a  given  eleva- 
•tion(in  this  case  10  ft.)  at  different  slopes  become  proportionately 
less  as  the  an|le  of  slope  increases. 


178  Contour  Lines 

Now  to  construct  a  scale  of  horizontal  equivalents.  Using 
the  working  scale  from  which  the  map  is  to  be  made,  lay 
off  a  distance  equal  to  573  ft.,  or  191  yds.  This  distance  will 
represent  the  map  distance  between  two  points  on  a  one 
degree  slope  whose  difference  in  elevation  is  10  ft.  Lay  off 
another  distance  equal  to  one-half  of  191  yds.,  or  94  yds., 
which  will  represent  the  distance  separating  two  points  on  a 
two  degree  slope  whose  difference  in  elevation  is  10  ft.,  and 
so  on  for  the  different  degrees  of  slope. 


CONTOUR  LINES. 

A  contour  line  is  an  imaginary  line  on  the  earth's  surface, 
all  points  of  which  are  of  the  same  elevation.  In  order  to 
understand  the  ,meaning  of  contour  lines  and  what  they  repre- 
sent, one  should  imagine  a  body  of  water  to  rise  to  a  certain 
elevation.  The  outline  of  his  body  of  water  on  the  land  will 
be  a  true  contour.  Then  imagine  the  water  to  rise  to  another 
given  elevation,  say  10  ft.  The  outline  of  the  water  on  the 
land  would  then  be  the  second  higher  contour  line.  By  con- 
tinuing this  process  until  the  land  is  covered  the  different 
contour  lines  will  then  have  been  outlined  throughout  the 
area  whose  contours  are  desired.  It  is  by  means  of  these 
contour  lines  that  one  is  able  to  picture  in  his  mind  the 
actual  form  of  the  land  in  the  area  represented  by  the  map. 


ORIENTATION. 

By  orientation  is  meant  the  placing  of  the  map  or  the 
sketching  board  so  that  its  north  will  point  north.  This 
is  done  by  drawing  a  line,  usually  an  arrow,  indicating 
the  magnetic  meridian,  or  direction  taken  by  the  compass 
needle.  When  the  compass  needle  and  the  line  indicating  the 
magnetic  meridian  are  parallel,  the  map  is  then  said  to  be 
oriented.  In  traversing  and  sighting  on  objects  with  a  view 
to  getting  their  proper  relative  directions  from  the  sketcher, 
it  is  necessary  to  have  the  board  carefully  oriented,  other- 
wise the  map  will  be  of  no  value  whatever. 


CONVENTIONAL  SIGNS. 

By  means  of  certain  characters,  the  various  topographical 
features  are  represented  on  itnaps.  The  signs  which  are  most 
commonly  used  in  military  sketching  are  given  on  page  179. 


-Topocpphioil  Conventions- 


BRIDGE 

=     WOODEN 
KING 
40  fh  LOftG  by 


T3ARBED- WiRE. 

ANV    KINO 
"ROADS 

IMPROVED 

-=-  =  =  =•  ==--r--        UNIMPROVED 

HAIL~ROADS 


1  '  '  '  '  '  '  SINGLE 

TELEGRAPH 

T  T  T  T  T 


STREAM 


15  fh  wide, 
" 


CULTIVATED 

LAND 


>>      /f A*I//* **'< 

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A  A  A     C.MP 

XV 


fordo  bk 


Vl  LLAGE 
••lib0          HOUSES 

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TRENCH 

INFANTR/. 
CAVALK/- 
ARTILLER/- 


D.  POST       OFFICE. 

TO.  TC.LE.GRAPH. 

WATE.R    WORKS. 


179 


180  Traversing 

1.    MAKING  THE  SKETCH. 

This  consists  of  the  following  processes :  First,  locating 
the  starting  point;  second,  traversing;  third,  locating  critical 
points;  fourth,  filling  in. 

To  locate  the  starting  point  it  is  necessary  to  give  its  di- 
rection and  distance!  from  some  well  known  point  or  location, 
such  as  a  town,  mountain  top,  junctions  of  important  rivers 
and  roads,  etc.  This  may  be  performed  in  two  ways :  by 
stating  the  distance  and  giving  its  direction  from  the  well 
known  point;  or  by  what  is  known  as  resection.  The  former 
method  is  more  commonly  used.  To  locate  one's  position  by 
resection  it  is  necessary  to  orient  the  sketching  board  and 
carefully  keeping  it  oriented,  sight  along  the  scale  to  some 
well  known  point  and  draw  a  line  on  the  paper  along  the 
scale.  This  is  done  in  the  direction  of  some  other  well  known 
point,  and  where  the  two  lines  cross  on  the  paper  is  the 
position  of  the  point.  It  is  necessary  that  some  point  on  the 
map  have  ^  its  distance  and  direction  from  some  other  well 
known  point  distinctly  indicated. 

TRAVERSING. 

Having  marked  the  starting  point,  and  with  the  board 
oriented,  place  the  straight  edge  of  the  scale  against  the  start- 
ing point  and  bring  it  into  the  direction  in  which  the  route 
is  to  start,  and  along  this  straight  edge  from  the  starting 
point  draw  a  light  line  to  a  distance  on  the  scale  approxi- 
mately more  than  to  cover  the  distance  to  be  paced  in  that 
direction.  This  is  the  first  step  in  traversing. 

The  next  step  is  to  proceed  along  the  route,  carefully 
counting  the  paces  taken  before  any  change  of  direction  is 
necessary.  At  the  first  change  of  direction,  halt,  note  the 
number  of  paces  taken  and  lay  off  on  the  line  drawn  from 
the  starting  point  by  means  of  the  scale,  a  distance  represent- 
ing that  which  has  been  paced,  and  mark.  This  is  the  relative 
position  of  the  sketcher  on  the  map.  Again  orient  the  map 
and  sight  along  the  straight  edge  of  the  scale  in  the  new 
direction,  being  careful  that  the  straight  edge  of  the  scale 
is  in  contact  with  the  point  last  marked,  and  draw  a  line  in  the 
new  direction  like  that  drawn  from  the  starting  point.  Avoid 
taking  a  large  number  of  short  sight  shots.  When  the  route 
to  be  traversed  is  crooked  and  full  of  bends  it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  take  new  sightings  for  each  short  distance,  but  the 
general  direction  should  be  given  and  the  bends  in  the  road 
put  in  by  estimation  after  the  next  turning  point  is  reached. 


Itocation  of  Critical  Points  181 

In  order  to  bring  about  more  accuracy  in  traversing,  the 
portion  of  the  road  last  traversed  should  be  verified  by  sight- 
ing back  to  the  last  turning  point  and  making  the  necessary 
corrections.  Traversing  without  the  aid  of  a  compass  may 
be  effected  successfully  by  orienting  the  board  with  reference 
to  the  last  distance  plotted.  By  giving  the  direction  and  the 
distance  of  each  of  the  turning  points  in  the  route  we  have 
what  is  termed  a  traverse.  This  traverse  really  forms  the 
base-line  of  the  sketch  and  corresponds  to  the  base  line  of 
a  survey.  From  this  traverse  all  elevations  and  locations  of 
other  features  may  be  taken. 

LOCATION  OF  CRITICAL  POINTS 

From  each  position  with  the  board  properly  oriented,  the 
line  of  sight  should  be  taken  towards  certain  prominent  points 
which  lie  within  the  area  of  the  map  in  order  to  give  their 
location.  By  sighting  upon  an  object  from  one  point  and 
drawing  a  line  toward  it,  and  again  sighting  upon  it  from 
another  position  on  the  traverse,  the  position  of  the  object 
is  accurately  located  by  the  intersection  of  the  two  lines  of 
sight  which  have  been  drawn.  Several  points,  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  country  and*  the  importance  of  the  object, 
should  be  carefully  located  on  each  side  of  the  traverse  by 
the  above  method  which  is  known  as  intersection.  A  lake, 
for  instance,  can  be  fairly  accurately  shown  by  locating  by 
intersection,  points  at  each  end  and  on  both  sides.  Forests, 
hills,  etc.,  can  be  located  in  the  same  manner. 

ELEVATIONS 

In  addition  to  locating  the  position  of  certain  features,  it 
is  necessary  to  ascertain  their  elevations.  This  can  be  done 
in  two  ways.  Having  located  the  position  of  a  certain  point 
whose  elevation  is  desired ;  with  a  slope  board  or  other  slope- 
reading  device,  read  the  angle  of  elevation  by  sighting  upon 
the  object.  Then  by  using  the  sub-division  of  the  scale  of 
horizontal  equivalents  corresponding  to  the  number  of  de- 
grees in  the  angle  of  elevation  as  a  measure,  find  the  number 
of  times  that  it  is  contained  in  the  distance  between  the 
sketcher  and  the  object.  This  number  multiplied  by  the  num- 
ber of  feet  of  the  vertical  interval  will  give  the  'elevation 
above  the  position  of  the  sketcher.  The  other  imethod  is 
without  the  use  of  the  scale  of  horizontal  equivalents.  From 
any  engineer's  hand-book  a  table  of  tangents  reduced  to  two 


182  Pilling1   in    Contours 

or  three  decimal  places  should  be  copied  up  to  and  including 
about  40  degrees.  This  copy  should  be  pasted  on  the  back 
of  the  sketching  board.  By  means  of  the  working  scale,  the 
map  distance  from  the  sketcher  to  the  object  can  be  read  off 
directly.  By  means  of  the  slope  board  read  the  angle  of 
elevation  to  the  object,  then  multiply  the  distance  to  the  ob- 
ject by  the  tangent  corresponding  to  the  angle  of  elevation, 
and  the  result  will  be  the  elevation  of  the  object  above  the 
sketcher's  position.  The  table  need  only  show  tangents  for 
degrees  and  half  degree. 

FILLING  IN  CONTOURS 

Contours  are  sometimes  called  form-lines,  since  they  show 
the  form  of  elevations  and  depressions  in  the  earth's  surface. 
In  all  military  sketches  contours  are  placed  according  to  what 
is  known  as  the  vertical  interval.  The  vertical  interval  is  the 
difference  in  elevation  between  adjacent  contour  lines.  The 
following  vertical  intervals  are  prescribed  for  military  maps. 

For  maps  whose  scale  is  one  inch  to  the  mile  the  vertical 
interval  is  60  feet.  For  maps  3  inches  to  the  mile,  20  feet;  6 
inches  to  the  mile,  10  feet;  and  12  inches  to  the  mile,  5  feet. 
With  this  uniformity  of  proportion  between  scales  and  vertical 
intervals,  the  distances  on  the  scale  of  horizontal  equivalents 
are  the  same  for  all  military  maps,  i.  e.,  .65  inches  for  a  one 
degree  slope,  .325  inches  for  a  two  degree  slope,  .216  inches 
for  a  three  degree  slope,  .16  inches  for  a  four  degree  slope, 
and  so  on.  It  is  well  to  remember  the  figure  .65  as  being  the 
distance  separating  contours  on  military  maps  for  a  slope 
of  one  degree,  as  this  distance  when  divided  by  the  number 
of  degrees  of  the  slope,  gives  the  map  distance  in  inches  be- 
tween contours  showing  the  various  degrees  of  slope.  Hav- 
ing determined  and  marked  upon  the  sheet  the  elevations  of 
the  necessary  critical  or  important  points,  the  contours  should 
be  sketched  in  with  reference  to  these  points,  each  line  being 
placed  so  to  show  by  outline  where  a  sheet  of  water  of  the 
contour  elevation  would,  cut  the  landscape.  Small  sections 
of  contours  may  be  drawn  on  various  parts  of  the  map  on 
certain  slopes,  and  afterwards  these  should  be  connected  by 
estimation  fro,m  some  point  from  which  the  landscape  can  be 
plainly  seen.  A  small  hand  level  is  very  valuable  for  such 
work.  The  slope-board,  however,  is  very  accurate  if  care- 
fully used.  The  upper  edge  of  the  slope-board  is  a  very  fair 
leveling  instrument  when  the  plumb-bob  hangs  at  zero. 

In    order    to   become    expert   at   contouring    rapidly,    much 


Other  Features  183 


practice  should  be  had  in  contouring  small  restricted  areas, 
after  careful  .measurement  of  slopes  and  distances  thereon, 
which  should  be  checked  up  by  reference  to  some  already 
well  made  map.  In  placing  contours  it  should  be  noted  that 
on  hillsides  the  country  near  the  bottom  and  near  the  top  is 
not  so  steep  as  that  in  between,  causing  the  contours  at  the 
top  and  bottom  of  the  hill  to  be  more  widely  spaced  than 
those  in  between.  Contours  should  never  cross  each  other 
except  in  the  case  of  an  over-hanging  cliff,  in  which  case  the 
contours  of  lower  elevation  should  be  shown  in  dotted  lines 
where  they  pass  under  the  higher  contours.  For  vertical 
cliffs,  contours  will  coincide  and  form  but  one  line,  separating 
on  both  sides  where  the  country  resumes  its  slope.  Contours 
should  not  be  drawn  across  roads.  They  should  run  to  the 
edge  of  the  road,  stop,  and  comimence  on  the  other  side  of 
the  road  exactly  opposite.  Contours  should  cross  streams  at 
right  angles,  going  up  stream  somewhat  before  doing  so, 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  depression  down  which  the 
stream  is  flowing. 

Remember  that  for  maps  the  scales  of  which  are  6  inches 
to  the  mile,  contours  represent  differences  of  elevation  of 
10  feet;  those  three  inches  to  the  mile,  20  feet;  one  inch  to 
the  mile,  60  feet.  In  contouring  the  different  slopes  it  is 
necessary  to  place  the  contours  by  estimation  so  as  to  show 
the  different  slopes  on  the  hill-side,  making  sure  however 
that  the  elevation  indicated  by  the  number  of  contours  is  at 
least  approximately  the  actual  elevation. 

OTHER  FEATURES 

In  representing  by  means  of  conventional  signs  all  the 
necessary  features  of  a  map  or  sketch,  it  is  not  necessary  or 
customary  to  locate  the,m  accurately  by  measurement  or  by 
intersection.  Having  the  critical  points  located  with  accuracy, 
the  other  features  should  be  drawn  in  by  relation  to  these 
actually  located  points.  All  features  which  are  of  military 
importance,  such  as  trees,  bridges,  roads,  streams,  woods, 
fences,  houses,  farms,  railroad  stations,  railroads,  telegraph 
and  telephone  lines,  camp-sites,  etc.,  should  be  indicated  by 
proper  signs. 

COMPLETION  OF  MAP 

The  scale  and  vertical  interval  should  be  shown  upon 
the  imap,  also  an  arrow  indicating  the  true  north  and 
south  line,  and  a  line  showing  the  declination  of  the  compass 


184 


Position    Sketches 


needle  should  be  drawn  thereon.  There  should  also  be  a 
notation  indicating  the  area  wbich  the  map  represents,  the 
date  on  which  it  was  made,  and  the  name,  rank,  and  or- 
ganization of  the  person  who  made  it. 

REPORT 

Every  military  sketch  should  be  accompanied  by  a  report 
giving  in  detail  all  the  military  information  which  might  be 
of  possible  value  to  the  authorities.  This  information  would 
consist  of :  character  and  condition  of  roads  and  bridges, 
obstacles,  camp-sites,  water  supply,  wood,  grazing,  defensive 
positions  for  infantry  and  artillery,  buildings  suitable  for 
military  use,  nature  and  condition  of  railroads,  telegraph  and 
telephone  lines,  capacity  of  railroad  stations,  water  tanks, 
etc. 

POSITION  SKETCHES 

A  position  sketch  is  made  by  the  same  means  as  a  route 
sketch,  except  that  a  base  line  should  be  traversed  accur- 
ately between  two  or  more  points  of  observation.  From 
these  points,  by  means  of  intersection,  various  critical  points 
should  be  accurately  located,  and  the  intermediate  points  and 
features  should  be  sketched  with  relation  to  the  points 
whose  location  have  been  determined. 

METHOD  OF  USE 

Determine  distance  to  the  object  by  intersection.  Read 
angle  of  elevation  with  slope  board,  multiply  distance  in  feet 
by  tangent  corresponding  to  the  number  of  degrees  of  angle. 
The  result  will  be  the  elevation  above  or  below  the  position 
of  the  Topographer. 

NATURAL  TANGENT  OF  ANGLES 
1  Deg 02        13  Deg 23      25  Deg 47 


3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 


035 

14 

.05 

15 

07 

16 

09 
10 

17 
18 

12 

19 

14 

20 

16 

21 

18 

22 

19 

23 

.20 

24 

37  Deg 75 


.25 

26 

49 

.27 

27 

51 

.29 

?8 

,  53 

.30 

?Q 

.    .55 

.32 

30 

.    .58 

34 

31 

60 

.36 

32 

.    .62 

38 

33 

.65 

.40 

S4 

.    .67 

42 

35 

.70 

.45 

36 

.73 

38  Desr. 

.  .78 

Notes  on  Topography  185 

METHOD   OF  USING  THE  FOLLOWING  TABLE 

The  following  table  is  used  for  getting  map  distances 
along  the  route  traversed. 

Read  the  angle  of  slope  along  the  route  traversed  and 
multiply  the  distance  so  traversed  by  the  number  opposite  the 
number  of  degrees  of  slope.  1  Deg  to  7  Deg.,  no  practical 
difference. 

NATURAL  COSINES  OF  ANGLES 

8  Deg 99  20  Deg 94  27  Deg 89 

10    "    98  22    "    93  28    "    88 

13    "    97  23    "    92  29    "    87 

16    "    96  24    " .91  31    "    86 

18    "  95  25    "  .90  33    "    84 


APPENDIX 


LIST    OF    FORMS    NEEDED    FOR    COMPANY 
ADMINISTRATION 

BLANK  FORMS 

3.  Notification  of  Discharge. 

17.  Certificate  of  Disability  for  Discharge. 

21.  Muster  Roll,  Detachment. 

26.  Field  Return. 

29.  Descriptive  List. 

30.  Return   of   Troop,    Battery,    Company,    or    Detachment 

(with  model). 

34.     Inventory  of  Effects  of  a  Deceased  Soldier. 

61.     Muster  Roll,  Troop,   Battery,  and  Cojmpany. 

61-1.     Extra  sheet  to  Forms  21  and  61. 

66.     Furlough. 

95.     Descriptive  List  of  Deserters. 

99.     Record  of  Summary  Court. 
101.     Return  of  Officers   (bureau). 
121.     Report  of  Action  Taken  on  Applications  for  Discharge 

of  Enlisted  Men. 
196.     Report  of  Survey. 
299.     Entry  Blank,  Official — National  Individual  Match. 

304.  Record  of  Known  Distance  Rifle  Firing — Individual. 

305.  Record  of  Pistol  Firing — Individual. 

307.  Report  of  Known  Distance  Rifle  Firing  and  Classifica- 

tion. 

308.  Report  of  Pistol  Firing  and  Classification. 

338.  Guard  Reports. 

339.  Daily  Sick  Reports. 

342.     Duty  Roster   (with  model). 

380.     Designation  of  Beneficiary  of  Officer  or  Enlisted  Man. 
383.     Requisition   for   Books   and   Blank   Forms    supplied   by 
the  Adjutant  General's  Department. 

409.  Report    of    Small-Arms    Target    Firing    under    Special 

Course  "A." 

410.  Record    of     Known    Distance     Firing    under     Special 

Course  "A." 

415.     Report  of  Death  and  Disposal  of  Remains. 
429.     Efficiency  Report. 


Appendix 

437.  Furlough  and  Transfer  to   Army   Reserve. 

443.  Reservist's  Descriptive  Card. 

448.  Memorandum  Receipt. 

451.  Return  of   Unit   Equipment. 

468.  Request   for   Retirement    (enlisted  men). 

489.  Model  Remarks   for  Muster  Rolls. 

525.  Honorable  Discharge  from  U.   S.  Army. 

526.  Discharge  frdm  U.  S.  Army. 

527.  Dishonorable  Discharge   from   U.   S.  Army. 

543.  Issue     of     Expendable     Articles,     Unit     Accountability 

Equipment. 

544.  Replacement    of    Articles,    Unit    Accountability    Equip- 

ment. 
559.     Report  of  Furlough  to  Reserve. 

Correspondence  Model  (A.  R.  776,  1913). 

WAR  DEPARTMENT  FORM 

366      Pay  roll  of  enlisted  men,  first  sheet. 
366a    Pay  roll  of  enlisted  men,   follow  sheets. 

Q.  M.  C.  FORMS 

8a  Advice  of  Soldiers'  deposits. 

38  Soldiers'  allotment  blanks. 

41  Soldiers'  deposit  book. 

69  Model  remarks  for  Army  pay  rolls. 

70  Instruction  for  Army  pay  rolls. 

164  Directions  for  measuring  for  U.  S.  clothing  of  special 

sizes. 

165  Individual  clothing  slip. 

165b  Statement  of  clothing  charged   to  E.   M. 

166  Requisition  for  table  ware  and  kitchen  utensils. 
176  Requisition  for  scrubbing  brushes,  brooms,  etc. 
180  Abstract  of  clothing  drawn  on  165. 

201  Transfer  of  Q.  M.  supplies,  invoice  and  receipts. 

204  Requisition   for   issue   of   stationery. 

207a  Certificate  of  breakage — china. 

208  Statement  of  charge. 

213  Requisition  for  clothing   (bulk). 

223  Ration  returns. 

232  Certificate  of  supplies  transferred. 

402  Application  for  transfer  to  the  Q.   M.   Corps  of   en- 
listed men. 

509  Delinquency  record   (E.  M.). 


Appendix 


EQUIPMENT  FOR  OFFICERS 

ORDNANCE  EQUIPMENT 

For  each   dismounted  officer. 


New  Model  Equipment* 


Old  Model  Equipment* 


1  can,    bacon   16  1  canteen   with    strap. 

1  can,   condiment  11  1  cup. 

1  canteen      46  1  haversack  (except  mounted 

1  canteen      cover,      dis-  officers). 

mounted      48  1  haversack  strap     (except 

1  pistol  belt,  with  maga-  mounted  officers)    or  sus- 

zine    pocket,     web,  penders  for  belt. 

double     2.15  1  meat  can. 

1  cup      29  1  knife. 

1  knife     10  1  fork. 

1  fork 06  1  spoon. 

1  spoon     06  1  pouch   for  first-aid   packet. 

1  meat  can  40  1  pistol    belt    with    magazine 

1  haversack      (except  pocket,  web,  double. 

mounted   officers)    ....  2.42  1  pistol  holster. 

1  pack    carrier     (except  1  pistol,  caliber  .45. 

mounted  officers)  60  2  extra  magazines. 

1  pouch     for     first-aid 

packet      13 

1  pistol  holster  1.50 

1  pistol,  caliber  .45  12.50 

2  extra  magazines  1.04 

QUARTERMASTER   PROPERTY 

1  mosquito  bar  2.16  1  i  n  d  e  n  t  ification      tag 

1  bedding  roll**    6.52  with  tape    01 

2  blankets 8.58  1  shelter    tent    complete 

1  basin,   canvas    36  with  poles  and  pins..  1.64 

1  bed  sack  57  1  poncho  or   slicker   2.60 

1  bucket,    canvas    76  1  whistle    (company    pf- 

1  lantern.  ficers    and     battalion 

1  clothing  roll    2.97  commanders     of    in- 

1  cot      2.06  fantry)      21 

*Either  model  of  equipment  permissible. 

**The  bedding  roll  supplied  by  the  Quartermaster  Corps  or 
any  other  canvas  roll  may  be  used  as  a  combination  bedding- 
clothing  roll. 


Appendix 


1  breeches,  o.  d.  cotton  1.07 
1  breeches,  o.  d.,  wool..  2.31 
1  overcoat,  o.  d.,  wool..  9.04 

1  waist  belt  10 

2  shirts,   o.   d.,   flannel....  4.76 
1  shoes,    russet    leather, 

pair       2.81 

Insignia      (collar      and 
shoulders)      3.00 


Clothing 1.81 

1  leggins,  pair,  leather  ..  7.50 

3  undershirts     69 

3  drawers,  pairs  66 

2  shoe  laces,  pairs  02 

5  stockings,  pairs  70 

1  hat,    service   5.00 

1  hat  cord   1.50 

1  coat,   o.   d.,  wool  3.95 

1  coat,  o.  d.,  cotton  1.31 

MEDICAL     - 

1  first-aid   packet. 

MISCELLANEOUS 

1  compass 1.00    1  notebook  and  pencil.... 

1  pair  field  glasses  35.00    1  watch. 

TOILET  ARTICLES 

1  comb.  1  package  toilet  paper. 

1  housewife.  3  towels. 

1  mirror.  1  cake  soap. 

1  tooth  brush,  with  paste.  1  shaving  outfit. 

For  each  mounted  officer  in  addition  to  above: 
1  set  of  horse  equipment,  consisting  of : — 


.10 


1  bridle,  cavalry. 

1  watering  bridle  (not  re- 
quired if  Model  1909  bridle 
is  on  hand). 

1  currycomb. 

1  nosebag  (or  feed  and  grain 
bag). 

1  halter  headstall. 

1  halter  strap  (or  halter  tie 
rope). 

1  horse   brush. 


1  lariat. 

1  lariat   strap. 

1  link. 

1  picket  pin. 

1  saddle     (McClellan     or 

Whitman). 
1  saddle  bags,  pair. 
1  saddle  cloth   with  insignia. 
1  saddle  blanket. 
1  surcingle, 
trunk  locker,  4.03. 


2.  The  unit  equipment  manuals  for  the  various  arms 
authorize  organization  commanders  to  keep  on  hand  such  of 
the  following  articles  authorized  by  paragraph  1522  A.  R. 
(articles  of  ordnance  furnished  by  the  government  for  use 
of  officers  serving  with  troops)  as  may  be  necessary  to  prop- 
erly equip  the  officers  on  duty  with  these  organizations. 


Appendix 

Pistols,  caliber  .45 $12.50 

Extra  magazine .52 

Pistol  belts 5.54 

Pistol  holsters 1.50 

Dispatch  case,  web 4.00 

3.  The  horse  equipment  required  by  mounted  officers  below 
the  grade  of  major  are  included"  in  the  ordnance  unit  account- 
ability of  the  organization  to  which  they  may  be  assigned. 

4.  It  is  not  necessary  for  reserve  officers  to  purchase  the 
horse  equipment  and   articles  mentioned  in   paragraph  three 
above,  but  they  may  purchase  such  articles  and  use  them  if 
they  so  desire. 

5.  Officers  of  infantry  are  not  required  to  have  a  saber 
and  scabbard  when    on  field  service.     Cavalry  officers  are  re- 
quired to  have  a  saber  and  scabbard  and  are  advised  to  pur- 
chase the  new  model  saber  which  may  be  procured  from  the 
Ordnance  Department. 

6.  Officers  of  the  Reserve  Corps  may  purchase  uniforms 
and  equipment  from  the   Supply  Departments  of  the  Army. 
(326.1) 

Note.    This  order  is  of  date  14  Feb.,  1917. 


Appendix 


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Appendix 


Appendix 


TWO-ARM  SEMAPHORE  CODE  WITH  HAND 
FLAGS. 


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INTERROGATORY 


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.ACKNOWLEDGE: 


NOTE. — For  special  and  conventional  codes,  see  Signal  Book. 


Appendix 
CORRESPONDENCE 


Port  Kiagara,  3.  Y. 
March  1,  1917. 


"Pron:          1st  Lieut.  John -P.  Doe,  Co.,  H,  5th  Infantry • 
Tot  Companding  Officer,  5th  Infantry. 

Subject:     Application  for  leave. 

(Letter  to  contain  bat  one  subject  and  its  description  to  be  give] 
in  not  more  than  ten  words)* 


1.  Letter  should  be  folded  in  three  equal  folds  as  indicated  by  dotted  line 

2.  Writing  to  be  so  placed  as  to  leave  a  aargin  of  about  an  inch  along 
left  ed$e  of  paper. 

3.  The  words  "From",  "To"  and  "Subject"  to  be  double-spaced  and  included 
In  first  fold  {above  dotted  line).     Single  spacing  to  be  used  in  the  paragraph. 
Paragraphs  to  be  separated  by  double  spaces. 

4.  Body  of  the  letter  should  comence  on  the  second  fold  or  middle  third 
of  the  sheet. 

5.  When  there  is  but  one  paragraph  in  the  letter  it  will  not  be  numbered. 
Wien  there  is  more  than  one  paragraph  they  will  be  muabered  as  herein. 

6»     TShen  the  narae  ana  rank,  etc.,  of  the  writer  are  given  above  after 
"Prom"  the  signature  will  bo  confined  to  th.«  v/fiter's  nane  only.     TChen  only  the 
office  title  is  given  above  after  "Proa"  the  officer  will  sign  his  name  over 

* 


7.  TVhen  enclosures  accocpany  the  letter  the  notation  (so  mny)   inclosures 
will  be  made  under  the  left  side  of  the  letter  about  on  the  sano  line  with  the 
signature. 

8.  She  signature  should  be  about  half  an  inch  below  the  last  line  of  the 
letter. 


I 

(File  No)  1st  lad. 

BQ.  FT.  NIAGARA,  N.  T. ,  March  2,   1917.  -  lo  Comn&nding  General,  Eastern 
Department.     Forwarded. 


Col..  5th  Inf., 


FORMS  OF  COMPLETE  FIELD  ORDERS 

While  the  following  forms  are  given  for  the  convenience  of  officers 
in  the  field,  and  with  a  view  of  securing  uniformity  in  the  service,  it 
must  be  remembered  that  no  two  military  situations  are  the  same.  The 
sequence  in  paragraph  3  is  not  obligatory,  the  commander  arranging  the 
details  according  to  his  best  judgment. 


Field   Orders 

No.  — 
[Reference 
used] 

Troops 


to       map 


Cav- 


For  an  advance. 

[Title] 

[Place] 

[Date  and  hour] 

1.  [Information  of   enemy   and  of  our  sup- 
porting troops] 

2.  [Plan   of  commander] 

3.  (a)    [Instructions    for    independent    cav- 
alry— place   and  time   of   departure,    roads  or 
country    to    be    covered,    special   mission] 

(b)  [Instructions      for      advance      guard — 
place   and   time   of   departure,    or    distance   at 
which  it  is  to  precede  the  main  body,  route, 
special  mission] 

(c)  [Instructions   for    main    body — distance 
at   which   it    is  to   follow   the   advance   guard, 
or  place   and  time  of   departure] 

(d)  [Instructions     for     flank     guard — place 
and    time    of    departure,    route,    special    mis- 
sion] 

(e)  [Instructions    for    signal    troops — lines 
of  information  to  be  established,  special  mis- 
sion] 

(x)    [Instructions     for     outpost — when     re- 
lieved,  subsequent   duties] 

4.  [Instructions  for  field  train — escort,  dis- 
tance in  rear  of  column,  or  destination  when 
different    from   that   of   main   body,    if    dispo- 
sition   not    previously    covered    in    "Orders"] 

[Instructions    for    sanitary,    ammunition,    supply    and    engineer    trains 
when  necessary] 

5.    [Place  of  commander  or  where  messages  may  be   sent.] 

[How  and  to  whom  issued]  [Authentication.] 


(a)  Independent 
airy : 

[CommanderJ 
[Troops] 

(b)  Advance  Guard: 

[Commander] 
[Troops] 

(c)  Main  Body — in  order 
of   march: 

[Commander]* 

(d)  Right      [left]      Flank 
Guard: 

[Commander] 
[Troops] 

(e)  Signal  Troops: 

[Commander] 
[Troops] 


*If   a   commander    is    designated   for   the   main    body,    his   name    is   in- 
serted  here. 


Forms  of  Complete  Pield  Orders 

For  advance  guards. 

Field  Orders  [Title] 

No.  —  [Place] 
[Reference       to       map  [Date  and  hour] 
used]           •  1.    [Information  of  enemy  and  of  our  sup- 
Troops  porting  troops] 

2.    [Plan   of   commander] 

(a)  Advance  Cavalry:  ,  3-    <a>    [Instructions  for   advance  cavalry— 

[Commander]  P^ce     and     time     of     departure,      roads     or 

[Troops!  country    to    be    covered,    special    mission] 

(b)    [Instructions    for    support — place    and 

(b)  Support:  time    of    departure,     route,     special    mission] 

[Commander]  (c)    [Instructions    for    reserve — distance    at 

[Troops]  which   it   is   to    follow    support] 

(c)  Reserve— in  order  of  <d>.  [Instructions     for    flank     guard— place 
march-  and  time  of  departure,  route,  special  mission] 

[Troops]  4>.  [Instructions    for    field    train — generally 

to    join    train    of    column    if    not    previously 

(d)  Right      [left]      Flank    covered    in    orders] 

Guard:  5.    [Place     of    commander     or    where    mes- 

[Commander]  sages    may   be    sent,    location    of    lines    of    in- 

[Troops]  formation] 

[Authentication] 
[How  and  to  whom  issued] 


A  halt  for  the  night — Camp  with  outpost. 

Field   Orders  [Title] 

No.  —  [Place] 

[Date  and  hour] 
[Reference  to   map  used] 

1.  [Information    of    enemy    and    of    our    supporting   troops,    including 
independent  cavalry] 

2.  [Plan    of    commander — to    encamp    or    bivouac] 

3.  (a)    [Designation    of    commander    and    troops    of    outpost,  *  general 
line   to  be  held,   special   reconnaissance,   connection   with   other   outposts, 
if  any] 

(b)  Instructions  for  troops  not  detailed  for  outpost  duty — location  of 
camp,  designation  of  camp  commander,  **  observation  of  flanks  and  rear 
when  necessary,  line  of  information,  conduct  in  case  of  attack] 

4.  [Instructions    for    field    train — generally   to    join   troops,    though    if 
near   enemy,    field  train   of   outpost   troops  may   be   held   in   rear]*** 

[Instructions  for  sanitary,  ammunition,  supply,  and  engineer  trains, 
when  necessary] 

5.  [Place  of  commander  or  where   messages  may  be  sent] 

[Authentication] 
[How  and  to  whom  issued] 


*  Where   the   advance   guard   is   large   the   order   may    direct   the   ad- 
vance guard  commander  to  establish  the  outpost. 

**  Omitted  when  the  chief  exercises  immediate  command  of  the  camp. 
***  May   be  provided   for   in   "order"   issued  subsequently. 


Forms  of  Complete  Field  Orders 

For  outposts. 
Field   Orders  [Title] 

No.  —  [Place] 

[Reference   to   map  used]  [Date   and   hour] 

1.  [Information  of  enemy  and  of  our  sup- 
Troops                       porting    troops] 

2.  [Plan    cf    commander — to    establish    out- 

(a)  Advance    Cavalry  post,    approximate    line    of    resistance. 

[Commander]  3.    (a)    [Instructions   for   advance   cavalry — 

[Troops]  contact   with   enemy,    roads   or    country   to   be 

(b)  Supports:*  specially    watched,    special    mission] 

No.  1.  [Commander]  (b)  Instructions  for  supports — positions 

[Troops]  they  are  to  occupy,  and  sections  of  line  of 

No.  2.  [Commander]  resistance  which  they  are  to  hold,  intrench- 

[Troops]  ing,  etc.] 

No.  3.  [Commander]  (c)  Instructions  for  detached  post posi- 

[Troops]  tion  to  be  occupied,  duties,  amount  of  re- 

(c)  Detached    Post  sistance] 

[Commander]  (d)    Instructions   for    reserve — location,    ob- 

[Troops]  servation  of  flanks,  conduct  in  case  of  attack, 

(d)  Reserve:  duties  of  special   troops] 

[Troops]  4.    [Instruction  for  field  train  if  necessary] 

[Commander]  5.    [Place     of    commander    or    where    mes- 

[How    and    to    whom    is-    sages   may    be   sent,    location    of   lines   of    in- 
sued]**  formation] 

[Authentication] 

It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  issue  two  outpost  orders;  the  first  as 
above,  containing  general  instructions;  the  second,  issued  after  an 
inspection  of  the  line,  and  containing  more  definite  instructions  or  in- 
volving changes. 

For  positions  in  readiness 

Field   Orders  [Title] 

No.  —  [Place] 

[Reference  to   map  used]  [Date  and  hour] 

1.  [Information    of    enemy    and    of    our   supporting   troops] 

2.  [Plan    of    commander — to    take    up    a    position    in    readiness    at    or 
near — ] 

3.  (a)    [Instruction  for  cavalry — to  reconnoiter  in  direction  of  enemy, 
special   mission] 

(b)  [Instructions   for   artillery — position    or    place   of    assembly] 

(c)  [Instructions   for   infantry — position   or    place   of  assembly,   points 
to   be    especially    held,    reconnaissance] 

(d)  [Instructions    for    engineers — position    or    place    of    assembly] 

(e)  [Instructions   for   signal  troops — lines   of  information] 

4.  [Instructions    for    field    trains,    sanitary,    ammunition,    supply    and 
engineer   trains  if   not    previously   covered   in   orders — generally   to    halt 
designated  localities   in   rear,   ready  to  move  in  any   direction] 

5.  [Place  of  commander   or  where  messages  may  be   sent] 

[Authentication  ] 
[How  and  to  whom  issued] 

*  Numbered  from  the  right. 

**  For  small  outposts  it  may  be  more  convenient  to  write  this  order 
without  a  marginal  distribution  of  troops. 


Forms  of  Complete  Field  Orders 


or- 


For    a   retreat 

[Title] 

[Place] 

[Date  and  hour] 

1.  [Information  of  enemy  and  of  our  sup- 
porting troops] 

2.  [Plan    of    commander — to    retire    in    di- 
rection of — ] 

3.  (a)    [Instructions    for    leading    troops — 
place    and    time    of    departure,    route,    special 
mission] 

(b)  [Instructions      for     main      body — place 
and    time   of   departure,    route] 

(c)  [Instructions   for   rear   guard — distance 
from    the    main    body    or    place    and    time    of 
departure,    special   mission] 

(d)  [Instructions    for     flank    guard — place 
and  time  of  departure,  special  mission] 

(e)  [Instructions    for    signal    troops — lines 
of   information] 

(x)  [Instructions  for  outposts — when  re- 
lieved, subsequent  duties — usually  forming 
the  rear  guard] 

4.  [Instructions     for     field     and     divisional 
trains — place    and    time    of    departure,    route, 
escort; j these   trains   are    generally   some    dis- 
tance ahead  of  the  column] 

5.  [Place    of    commander    or     where    mes- 
sages  may   be   sent] 

[Authentication] 
[How  and  to   whom  issued] 

For  rear  guards. 

[Title] 

[Place] 

[Date   and   hour] 

1.  [Information  of  enemy  and  of  our  sup- 
porting   troops] 

2.  [Plan    of    commander — mission    of    rear 
in  order  of    guard] 


Field    Orders 
No.  — 
[Reference  to  map  used] 


Troops 

(a)  Leading    Troops: 

[Commander] 
[Troops] 

(b)  Main     Body— in 
der    of    march: 

[Troops] 

(c)  Rear    Guard: 

[Commander] 
[Troops] 

(d)  Right      (left)      Flank 
Guard: 

[Commander] 
[Troops] 

(e)  Signal    Troops: 

[Commander] 
[Troops] 


Field    Orders 

No.  — 
[Reference  to  map  used] 


Troops 


(a)   Reserve 


3.  (a)    [Instructions       for        reserve — place 
and    time    of    departure,    or    approximate    dis- 
tance   from    main    body,    reconnaissance] 

(b)  [Instructions    for    support — place    and 
time   of   departure   or   distance   from    reserve, 
any   special   reconnaissance] 

(c)  [Instructions    for    rear    cavalry — place 
and    time    of    departure,    road    or   country   to 
be   covered,   special   mission] 

Flank        (d)    [Instructions    for    flank    guard — place 
and  time  of  departure,  route,  special  mission] 

4.  [Instructions      for      field      train      when 
necessary — usually     to     join    train     of     main 
body] 

5.    [Place    of    commander    or    where    messages    may   be    sent — location 
of   lines   of   information] 

[Authentication] 
[How  and  to  whom  issued] 


march : 

[Troops] 

(b)  Support: 

[Commander] 
[Troops] 

(c)  Rear    Cavalry: 

[Commander] 
[Troops] 

(d)  Right      (left) 
Guard: 

[Commander] 
[Troops] 


Forms  of  Complete  Field  Orders 

MARCH     TABLE 

In  movements  of  large  forces  on  several  roads,  it  is  sometimes 
desirable  to  prescribe  the  daily  inarches  of  the  various  columns  for 
two  or  more  days.  In  such  cases  the  order  may  often  be  simplified 
by  appending  or  incorporating  a  march  table  usually  in  the  following 
form,  each  column  providing  its  own  security. 


-Army,  from 


March    Table. 
-[date],  to  


-[date]. 


[Reference    to   map    used.] 


Date. 

Division. 

Division. 

Army    Hq. 

Location  of  main 
body  or  of  advance 
guard  at  end  of 
each  day's  march, 
and  line  of  march, 
if  necessary. 

Location  of  main 
body  or  of  advance 
guard  at  end  of 
each  day's  march, 
and  line  of  tnarch, 
if  necessary. 

Location  at  end 
of  each  day's 
march. 

CONTENTS 


COURTS-MARTIAL— CHAPTER  I. 


PAGE 
1 


Action    on    Proceedings    

Action   upon   Charges    

Arraignment    

Arrests  and  Confinements   . 
Arrest    of    Deserters   by    Civil 

Authorities 

Assistant  Judge  Advocate  .  . . 
Attendance  of  Witnesses  .... 
Authorities  for  Appointing 

General  Courts-Martial  .    .  . 

Challenges 

Classification  of  Courts-Martial 

Composition    

Conditions  Necessary   to   show 

Jurisdiction 

Confinement   in   a  Penitentiary 

Contempt    

Continuance 

Counsel 

Courts   of   Inquiry 

Depositions 

Evidence 

Findings    

Grounds    for    Challenge    

Habeas   Corpus 

Interpreter    

Judge    Advocate 5 

Jurisdiction    in    General    


PAGE 

40  Jurisdiction  of    General  Courts- 

16        Martial    7 

29  Jurisdiction  of  Special  Courts- 

9        Marital    7 

Jurisdiction        of        Summary 

12        Courts-Martial 8 

24    Jurisdiction  of  Other  Military 

30  Tribunals 9 

Members 18 

3    Memoranda    for    Trial    Judge 

26  Advocates 42 

2    Military   Law    1 

2    Nature   of   Courts-Martial    ...  5 

Oaths 28 

6    Persons    Subject     to     Military 

39        Law 2 

34    Pleas 29 

29    Preparation   of   Charges    13 

24-    Procedure    when    Military    and 

41  Civil    Jurisdiction    are    Con- 

34        current   .   .   . . 6 

34    Previous  Convictions 38 

38    Questioning  of  Witnesses    ...  25 

27  Reporter 25 

33    Sentence 39 

26    Special    Courts-Martial 4 

22     Statements  and  Arguments.  .  .  3? 

5    Summary   Courts-Martial    5 


COMPANY  ADMINISTRATION— CHAPTER  II 49 


Appointment    of    Non-Commis- 


Honors  and  Courtesies 


sioned    Officers    63     Issue   of    Clothing 


Army      Employed 

Comitatus 
Clothing 
Command 


as      Posse 


69 
60 
50 

Company  Records 54 

Company   Commanders    

Enlistments 

Furloughs 


63 
50 


Issue    of    Ordnance    to    Com- 
panics  .................. 

Issue   of   Rations    ........... 

Punishments    ............. 

Non-Commissioned   Officers    .  . 
Rank  .................... 

Record    of    Sizes 


50     Replacing   of   Ordnance 


66 
60 

61 
56 
62 
63 
49 
61 
62 


SERVICE  RIFI.E— CHAPTER  HI. 


Aiming  Exercise  92  Instruction  Practice 

Definitions  99  Long  Distance  Practice  

Deflection  and  Elevation  Car-  Marking 

rection  Drills 97  Methods  of  Range  Finding.  . 

Duties  of  Company  Com-  Non-Commissioned  Officer  in 

mander   in   Connection    with  Charge    of    Pits 


Target    Practice 


72 

101 

103 
102 
100 

102 


100     Officer   in   Charge    of    Firing.  .    102 


CONTENTS— Continued 


(Service  Bine  Continued) 

PAG) 

Position   and  Aiming  Drills.  .     90 
Position  Exercise  ..........     92 

Preventing  Fraud  in  Marking 
and  Scoring  ............   101 

Prone  Position   ............   101 

Range  Officer  .............   102 

Rapid  Fire  Exercise    ........     95 

Record  Practice  ...........  101 

Remarks   on   Preceding   Drills    96 


Rest   for    Rifle 


101 


:  PAGE 

Sighting  Drills 85 

Sighting  Exercises 87 

Sighting    Shots   .    . 101 

Small  Arms  Firing  Regula- 
tions— Scheme  of  Prelimi- 
nary Instruction  84 

Telescopic  Sights 103 

Trigger    Squeeze    Exercise.  . .     94 

Use  of  the  Sling 100 

Uniform 101 


FIELD    SERVICE    REGULATIONS— CHAPTER   IV 104 

Advance    Guards    110    Marches,    Kinds  of    130 

Care   of   Troops    140    Orders    119 

Distribution    of    Troops,    Ad-  Outposts 114 

vance  Cavalry,  Support  and  Security    109 

Reserve 112    Shelter      137 

Firing      135    Shelter   During  aBttle    140 

Forming  the  Column    124    Shelter   During  Sieges    140 

General    Orders 120  Shelter  in  the  Service  of  the 

Halt  Order .  .  118        Interior       137 

Information 104  Shelter   in   Theatre   of   Opera- 
Marches  and   Convoys    124        tion        138 

NOTES  ON  ELEMENTARY  INFANTRY  INSTRUCTION 

CHAPTER  V 143 

Commands        143 

CAVALRY— CHAPTER  VI 151 

Care  of  Horses — General  Pro-  Notes    on    Hippology — Confor- 

vision       151         mation        167 

Care   of    Saddlery 162    Shoeing 160 

Defects    and    Blemishes    169  Points   of   the   Horse    (Cut)..  166 

Exercising 159    Sick   Horses 160 

Feeding 158    Stable    Management    152 

Fitting  the   Saddle    163    Stable    Duty    154 

Grooming   .    .    154    Watering   .    157 

NOTES    ON    TOPOCrRAPHY—  CHAPTER   VII 172 

Contour  Lines 178  Measuring   by   Paces    176 

Conventional    Signs 178  Orientation 178 

Completion    of    Map    183  Other    Features    183 

Elevations    181  Position    Sketches    184 

Filling    in    Contours    182  Report 183 

Location    of    Critical    Points..  181  Scale   of    Map    Distances 176 

Making  the   Sketch    178  Traversing ' ISO 

APPENDIX i 

List  of  Forms  Needed  for  Company  Administration,  i;  Equipment 
for  Officers,  iii;  Illustrations  on  various  subjects,  vi  to  xviii;  Forms 
of  Complete  Field  Orders,  xix  to  xxiv. 


QUARTERMASTER 
CORPS 


A  series  of  Lectures  on  the  Q.  M.  C.  are 
being  delivered  by  Major  F.  H.  Lawton, 
Q.  M.  C.,  U.  S.  A.,  in  New  Yoik,  Boston 
and  Philadelphia. 

At  the  present  time  books  necessary  for 
this  course  are  out  of  print,  with  but 
little  prospect  of  arjy  being  printed. 

This  course  will  cover  the  entire  work 
of  this  department.  Most  of  the  lectures 
have  just  been  printed  and  the  remaining 
lectures,  about  twelve  in  all,  will  be 
printed  as  soon  as  possible,  in  book  form. 

Send  in  your  name  and  receive  the  series. 

Price,  $2.00 


Published  by 

GEORGE    U.    HARVEY 

109  Lafayette  St. 
New  York  City,  N.  Y. 


Ready  About  May  1st. 

WHAT  AN  OFFICER 
MUST  KNOW 

By  Major  J.  C.  McArthur,  U.  S.  A. 


The  most  wonderful  military  book  yet  produced. 
Tells  things  which  have  never  been  written  about 
before.  It  is  the  experience  of  thirty  years  of  service 
and  two  wars. 

It  takes  the  Reserve  Officer  from  his  home  to  the 
firing  line.  It  shows  the  difficulties  which  he  meets 
and  tells  how  he  overcomes  them.  It  shows  how 
a  company  is  organized ;  the  instruction  of  the  men 
on  the  hike,  in  the  field  and  on  the  firing  line. 

Notes  are  written  on  each  chapter  explaining  various 
orders  and  giving  suggestions  for  overcoming  the 
various  unforeseen  difficulties  that  always  arise. 


Order  now.    Price  $2.00. 

GEORGE  U.  HARVEY,  Publisher 
109  Lafayette  Street  New  York  City 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 


AN     INITIAL    FINE    OF    25     CENTS 

WILL  BE  ASSESSED  FOR  FAILURE  TO  RETURN 
THIS  BOOK  ON  THE  DATE  DUE.  THE  PENALTY 
WILL  INCREASE  TO  SO  CENTS  ON  THE  FOURTH 
DAY  AND  TO  $1.OO  ON  THE  SEVENTH  DAY 
OVERDUE. 


APR    7   1933 


LD  21-50m-l,'33 


00663 


359J 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


